Genetic experiment by military approved.
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NIDR--40 years of research advances in dental health.
The National Institute of Dental Research (NIDR) was created by President Harry S Truman on June 24, 1948, as the third of the National Institutes of Health. NIDR's legislation contained the mandate to conduct research and research training to improve oral health. An impetus for federally funded dental research was the finding in World War II that the major cause of rejection for military service was missing teeth. Because of the population's widespread tooth decay problems, early NIDR research focused on eliminating dental caries. NIDR scientists confirmed the safety and effectiveness of the use of fluoride in tooth decay prevention, leading to one of the nation's most successful public health efforts, community water fluoridation. During the past 40 years, NIDR scientists have provided research advances and fostered technologies which changed the philosophy and practice of dentistry and brought dental sciences into the mainstream of biomedical research. Dental researchers contribute to studies of such diseases and problems as AIDS, cancer, arthritis, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, herpes, craniofacial anomalies, pain, and bone and joint disorders. NIDR's 40th anniversary in 1988 recognizes its continuing commitment to oral disease prevention and health research, and to achieving the goal of people maintaining their natural dentition for a lifetime.
Adolescent↗
[Not Available].
Some ideas, whether right or wrong, seem never to die, whatever might be the general evolution of knowledge, of science, or simply of good common sense. This is exactly the case with physical education or sports. For centuries, and especially since the middle of the nineteenth century, its advocates have fought for recognition of its all-round virtues, taken as a concept. But to attain a high level of recognition, not only in society but in official government circles, certain conditions were necessary. Education as a whole, around the middle of the nineteenth century, had to be strict and similar to military drill to be considered efficient, although the French middle classes and bourgeoisie had very little taste for the military. Although they admired physical prowess they had a horror of regimentation. But later on, when the Prussians so easily defeated Austria, feelings of doubt in French superiority began to spread, and a handful of theoreticians of physical exercise tried to show that to combat the so-called degeneration of the race, it was essential to impose a system of education in which physical exercise, coupled with military drill, still had an important place. As scientific arguments they referred to the theories of evolution and its then accepted principle, according to Lamarck, or the transmission of acquired properties and character. Darwin was still unknown in France at that time. These zealous advocates succeeded in convincing the Minister of Public Education, Victor Duruy, to include gymnastics in the normal course of studies in all schools, and by 1869 one can say that a craze for all types of physical exercise and sport had spread into many levels of society. That was the start of a never-ending movement which has passed through various stages of evolution corresponding to the changes in society itself. It has therefore changed its methods, its ways, its forms, but the overall principle remains the same, in spite of the improved understanding of human physiology for instance. Huge amounts of energy and money were spent on realizing this theory: politicians, educators, the military, religious authorities, men of distinction, all fought for the best possible application of this miraculous principle which was believed to cure all ills in this world. Was it really worthwhile? Was it possible to expect objectively measurable results on a national scale if the social factors - such as standards of living, hygiene, working hours, urban conditions - were not taken into account? The history of this element requires a deep understanding of the evolution of most of the factors which make up real life in a country such as France, which experienced various stages in a industrial revolution as well as many political changes. In spite of this evolution, one must acknowledge that false beliefs survived well into the 1940s, and furthermore, physical exercise, whatever its form, still belongs in many ways to hedonism and is therefore difficult to impose as a universal solution to political problems. As a democracy, France could not accept militarization.
France↗
Preventing deadly conflict: the critical role of leadership.
This article emerged from the work of the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Washington, DC. The commission addressed several fundamental questions: (1) What are the problems posed by deadly conflict, and why is outside help often necessary to deal with these problems? (2) How can disputes be resolved peaceably? (3) Which strategies work best? (4) Who can do what to implement these preventive strategies? Borrowing from the model of preventive medicine, the commission detailed a repertoire of the most promising political, economic, military, and social tools and strategies that can be mobilized by the international community to assist vulnerable societies in the development of sustainable and equitable arrangements for managing diversity and resolving disputes peacefully. From a comparative examination of intransigent and destructive intergroup conflicts, the commission found that the failure to prevent conflict is most often not a failure of foreknowledge or capacity but of political will. Effective political leadership is often the critical variable for successful prevention. This article seeks to illustrate how the social and behavioral sciences may be usefully applied to the problems encountered by leaders when confronted by the challenges of preventing deadly conflict.
Behavioral Sciences↗
Minimal debridement or simple wound closure as the only surgical treatment in war victims with low-velocity penetrating head injuries. Indications and management protocol based upon more than 8 years follow-up of 99 cases from Iran-Iraq conflict.
BACKGROUND: During military conflicts, surviving victims traditionally underwent large enough craniectomy or craniotomy to achieve extensive debridement of the in-driven bone, shell fragments, and debris. Meanwhile, the completely as well as the partially devitalized adjacent brain tissue would also be debrided. This might have led to additional neurologic deficit or lesser degree of recovery of functions. METHOD: We studied the efficacy and safety of much more limited or even absence of surgical intervention in a selected group of wartime head-wounded patients. Among 1,150 war victims with penetrating head wounds referred to two major centers affiliated with Tehran University of Medical Sciences during the 8-year period spanning the Iran-Iraq conflict, there were 191 head-wounded patients who underwent either no surgical intervention or a very limited debridement. We have attempted to follow up as closely as possible for more than 8 years. Ninety-nine of them fulfilled the criteria to be included in this series. Close follow-up for development of cerebral infections, functional recovery, or development of new neurologic deficits and epilepsy were performed. At least 3 contrast-enhanced CT scans were taken for each patient. All patients were victims of the battle-field areas with low- to moderate-velocity missile or shell fragment injury. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores of the patients were between 8-14 when visited by the first attending neurosurgery staff. The factors considered to be effective in the outcome analysis were the entry point, the number of the in-driven bone fragments, the retained shell fragments, the brain compartments affected, and the paranasal sinus or skull base involvement with or without cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fistula. RESULTS: There were 13 unilobar, 44 bilobar, 4 trilobar, 38 transventricular, and 3 skull base lesions. The number of retained metal fragments varied between 1 to 6. The number of retained bone fragments varied between 1 to 5 in 73 victims and more than five chips in other cases. The outcome was good (back to work) in 90 patients and poor (severely disabled) in 4. Five patients died because of severity of brain damage and meningitis. The effect of the different enumerated variables upon the outcome was measured using chi(2) and Fisher exact test, which was nonsignificant for all of the variables except for the orbitofacial entry point of injury (p = 0.00006). CONCLUSION: This study seems to indicate that not only is reoperation for retained bone or shell fragments unnecessary, but surgeons having modern neuroradiological instruments available to detect the proper explanation for changes in GCS of the patients may decide not to proceed with any surgical intervention in a good number of patients. As a result of the "no surgical treatment protocol," one can preserve cerebral tissue without exposing the patient to undue risk of seizures, infection, or death by leaving behind some or all the in-driven bone and shell fragments.
Brain Injuries↗
The medical profession and nuclear war. A social history.
Since World War II, individual physicians and medical organizations in the United States have cooperated with the federal government in preparing for nuclear war. While most physicians have maintained a neutral stance, a minority have resisted federal policies. Health professionals participated actively at the wartime laboratories that developed the atomic bomb and in the medical research that followed Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Professional organizations helped with civil defense planning for nuclear conflict during the Cold War of the late 1950s and early 1960s. Medical resistance to nuclear war began in the same period, gained wide attention with the growth of Physicians for Social Responsibility in the early 1960s, declined during the Vietnam War, and vastly increased in the early 1980s. Activism by health professionals usually has responded to government policies that have increased the perceived risk of nuclear conflict. The recent return of civil defense planning has stimulated opposition in medical circles. Ambiguities of medical professionalism limit the scope of activism in the nuclear arena. These ambiguities concern the interplay of organized medicine and government, tensions between science and politics, and the difficulties of day-to-day work in medicine while the arms race continues.
American Medical Association↗
The VA's affiliation with academic medicine: an emergency post-war strategy becomes a permanent partnership.
The creation of a cabinet-level department for veterans' programs is an occasion to review medical care of American military veterans, which dates back to colonial times. To meet the medical care crisis caused by large numbers of returning World War II veterans, the Veterans Administration (VA) entered into affiliations with U.S. medical schools, a partnership that provided physicians for veterans and allowed residents to complete graduate medical education. Increasing medical care needs of veterans of World War II and successive conflicts, and legislatively expanded entitlements, have contributed to sustained growth of the VA workload--which in turn has led to an expanded partnership with schools of medicine and allied health sciences. The affiliations continue to serve both partners well and to contribute substantively to society at large by fostering the production of medical manpower and advances in biomedical research.
Education, Medical, Graduate↗
Image processing--principles and its future applications in reconstructive and aesthetic plastic surgery.
Although the great importance of the visual aspect to medical science, and plastic surgery in particular, is beyond doubt, the utilization of image systems for transmission, storage, and processing of images is not at all widespread. The main reason for this phenomenon is that owing to the high complexity of imaging-related equipment, in comparison with other means such as audio equipment (telephone, tape recorders, and so on), more complicated systems are required, including wider broadcasting channels, much larger storage capacities, and higher processing speeds than are available now. Except for extensive research and development activities in the universities, research institutes, and military organizations, the large potential of the artificial visual aspect is not commonly utilized. In the future, efficient utilization of image processing capabilities in the service of plastic surgery will be achieved by the emerging capabilities for many complicated procedures. These include huge image data base processing, automatic detection of pathologic cases by enhancement of details and recognition of patterns, accurate measurements of the changes and distortions in the processed images, prediction of results to allow planning of treatment, simulation, and training on computerized cases. The new capabilities also include visual control of robotic arms for complicated operations, better audio-visual communication between faraway clinics and medical centers via sophisticated teleconferencing systems--which will save traveling expenses and time and will enable the updating of medical information--and many more applications that will be developed when the basic equipment becomes an integrated part of the clinics and plastic surgery departments. Future image processing will enhance the visual aspect in the plastic surgeon's work and will enable the doctor to expand his or her professional capabilities.
Automation↗
A Festschrift honoring Norman M. Rich.
A Festschrift honoring forty years of government services, twenty-five years as Founding Chairman of the Department of Surgery at the F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland and the seventieth birthday of Norman M. Rich, MD, Facs, DMCC, was held on Friday 26 March, 2004 in conjunction with the 24th Annual USU Surgical Associates Day. This article describes that event and introduces the articles written in celebration of it.
General Surgery↗
[Aviation medicine in Russia on the threshold of the 3d millennium].
Analysis of the interrelated development of aviation technologies and aeromedical science pointed out that the mainstream of aviation medicine as science is integration of human factors equally in the processes of aviation technology development, testing, and operation. Focus is placed on the methodology of aviation medicine and prospect for its refining in the interests of better effectiveness and safety of flights, maintenance of health and prolongation of career of all categories of flying personnel.
Accidents, Aviation↗
[A brief history of the development of Turkish pharmacognosy].
1839-1909: The Foundation Period: The education of pharmacy through the apprenticeship system ended up as a "Pharmacology Branch" of the "Military Medical School" which was founded in 1839 in Istanbul during the Ottoman Empire. A "Civil Pharmacology Branch" was founded in 1867. The education of pharmacognosy, called "Matiere Medicale" and "Mufredat-i Tip" too, was started during this period. 1909 (1913)-1945: The Institutionalization Period; The education of pharmacognosy as it is understood today was included in the curriculum of the Pharmacology School in 1909, before the foundation of the Turkish Republic; however, the pharmacognosy education was eventually started in 1913. During this period, the School of Pharmacology was administratively a part of the Medical School: and later the School of Science; then it was reattached to the Medical School, yet it had its own separate building. 1945-1963: The Period of Development: This is the period when academic studies on pharmacognosy started and a "Pharmacognosy Institute" was established as a part of the Pharmacology School of the Medical School in 1945. Professor doctor Sarim Celebioglu, who had a Ph.D from Berlin University, was appointed as a director of this institute and directed it until 1962. Approximately for 40 years the education and research on pharmacognosy and pharmaceutical botany was handled only in the Istanbul University. 1962-1997: Reform and Improvement Period: Today there are eight pharmacology schools in Turkey; three in Ankara, one in Erzurum (1997), one in Eskisehir, two in Instanbul and one in Izmir. Pharmacognosy education is carried out in all of these schools. Additionally, there are three research centers which were founded by the pharmacognosy divisions of the Ankara, Anadolu and Istanbul Universities.
History, 19th Century↗
[Incorporation of the hospital into modern technology].
This address traces the emergence of the hospital in the 18th century as a facility for combating disease and tending to the sick. Reference is made to the reports of Tenon and Howard on hospitals in several European countries, which instead of considering the hospital as a mere architectural object make recommendations based on the numbers of beds of an institution, its usable space, the dimensions of wards, mortaility rates, etc.; the result is a new functional concept of the medical and physical organization of the hospital. The author delves into the characteristics of the hospital and medical practice in the Middle Ages, the 17th and 18th centuries, and since the middle of the 18th. He brings out the direct relationship of hospital organization to the economic regulations that emerged with mercantilism. He stresses the importance of man for social and military development on the one hand, and, on the other hand, to the application of a technology that could be described as political: the discipline. He is of the view that the introduction of disciplinary mechanisms in the confused environment of the hospital permitted its "medicalization" and the development of the medical-therapeutic hospital.
Europe↗
The role of the flight surgeon in Greece.
From 1915 [corrected], the first time a flight surgeon participated in an aeromedical evacuation, to the present, the role has become more fundamental by working in wars and operations, experiencing search and rescue aeromedical evacuations from mass accidents or motor accidents, treating seriously ill individuals, and caring for wounded victims of attacks either at the scene or at the hospital. The improvements in cognitive and technological standards of medical science and in the education available have contributed in upgrading the role of flight surgeons; however, their presence in flight is considered essential in 20-60% of aeromedical evacuations, with the remainder of the flights being covered by paramedical personnel. In the Greek territory, the development of Air Force medicine began with the U.S. education of Panagiotis Korombilis, founder of the Center for Flight Crew Health Examination in 1936. In 1976, the Air Force Medical Center was established in the General Air Force Hospital while the educational and medical work of Air Force physicians led to the development of Air Force Medicine and supported Olympic Airways and Military Air Force development, which provides aircraft and personnel for patient aeromedical evacuations. An organized aeromedical evacuation system based on the National Health System, however, began operating in 1982 and was upgraded in 1994. Currently, the flight surgeon's work remains important in supporting the Military Air Force by offering regular examinations at the Air Force Medical Center for all personnel flying on civil and military aircrafts, and by educating all the Greek territory and Cypriot Air Force surgeons (of the National Emergency Assistance Center and the Military Services) at the Air Force Medical Center. Their presence at Air Force bases is important, as is their support of the overall well-being of flight personnel, their assistance in upholding the territory's future by improving aircraft and equipment and by purchasing search-rescue aeromedical evacuation helicopters and hospital aeromedical transportation aircraft capable of transporting seriously ill patients, their promotion of collaboration with other countries in educating Air Force surgeons, and in support of valuable human life according to the Hippocratic Oath.
Aerospace Medicine↗
[The outlook for the surgical treatment of refractive anomalies in flight personnel].
The authors discuss one of the important problems in aviation ophthalmology--correction and treatment of refraction anomaly in flying personnel. They disclose the methods of professional medical rehabilitation provided by the modern science development and analyze the surgical methods of refraction anomaly treatment with their pros and cons. Furthermore, the authors evaluate the prospects of keratotomy and excimer laser keratectomy's application for professional rehabilitation of flying personnel. In their opinion, the results of the study prove, that the problem of refraction anomaly's surgical treatment needs further research and development.
Aerospace Medicine↗
Curriculum focus: traditional dental education confronts the new biology and social responsibility.
The traditional dental education base does not suggest that graduates are prepared only for private general practice. It promises much, much more. It is the beginning of what any graduate may wish or want it to be. In fact it is necessary for new graduates contemplating private practice to seek more in the way of practice management if they plan to be successful in that model. Such is also the case for additional study if one wants to pursue a specialty; further training in the scientific method to undertake research; or further study in education for a teaching career. The predoctoral program promises to be just a beginning, but a sound and sensible beginning. The current foundation model of the predoctoral curriculum continues to serve society and the profession very well. It provides the necessary grounding in the fundamentals of basic medical sciences, clinical biological sciences, and behavioral sciences upon which any graduate can build and pursue a career beyond what is thought to be the traditional role model of the private practice of general dentistry. Faculty members and dental programs can choose, if they desire, to tailor mission statements to reflect a changing emphasis. This could help dental applicants become more thoughtful and self-selective in considering one of many different career options available. Given the emerging demographic profile and trends in needs, the curriculum emphasis could be altered to encourage a change in the balance or proportion of graduates who undertake career options in a postdoctoral experience, in public health, research, teaching, administration, the military, hospital, or specialty practice.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Curriculum↗
Genetic technologies and courts of law.
Human genetic testing, and its next logical technological plateau, gene therapy, are largely unregulated in the United States and much of the world. Since the basic science and some of the technological know-how related to such tests and therapeutic regimes cross national boundaries, the disputes that follow in the wake of popular response to such technological advances could arise in virtually any court of the world. For much of the post-industrial world, this pits the unfettered processes of medical decision-making against standards of the rule of law enforced by independent courts of law. For a substantial portion of the developing world, courts are not independent and the rule of law is precariously standardized. There the proponents of unbounded genetic test development and experimentation have greatest opportunities for mischief that can create civil, criminal and military strife. In this paper we propose and discuss methods to forecast case scenarios. We will emphasize the globalization of civil and criminal conflicts that may be spurred by the use of genetic testing. Extra-judicial dispute resolution is likely to fail in the case of genetic tests. We finally propose an international means of judicial discourse that has potential to bring objectivity and even-handedness to the just resolution of issues spurred by genetic testing and engineered evolution.
Genetic Testing↗
[Analysis of the literature in West China Journal of Stomatology cited by science periodical embodied by Chinese biological medical disc].
OBJECTIVE: The literature published in West China Journal of Stomatology (WCJS) cited by science periodical from 1983 to 2001 were analyzed to evaluate the academic level and quality of WCJS. METHODS: The cited literature was searched by Chinese biological medical disc (CBMDisc) from 1983 to 2001. The distributions of the times, the periodical and the authors were described. RESULTS: The quantities of cited literature were 1 338 and increased with years. The periodical and the authors were 266 and 1 003 respectively from 1998 to 2001. The cited frequencies of stomatological periodicals were more than that of other academic periodical. The authors scattered in 32 provinces and 448 units of China. The medical university and affiliated hospital were 32.14%, the local hospital and stomatological dispensary were 54.69%, the military hospital was 10.71%, and other unit was 2.46%. CONCLUSION: The literature published in WCJS are superior in quality. The cited frequency of WCJS is high relatively. WCJS is one of the most important informational source of stomatology.
Bibliometrics↗
Production, distribution and applications of californium-252 neutron sources.
The radioisotope 252Cf is routinely encapsulated into compact, portable, intense neutron sources with a 2.6-yr half-life. A source the size of a person's little finger can emit up to 10(11) neutrons s(-1). Californium-252 is used commercially as a reliable, cost-effective neutron source for prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) of coal, cement and minerals, as well as for detection and identification of explosives, land mines and unexploded military ordinance. Other uses are neutron radiography, nuclear waste assays, reactor start-up sources, calibration standards and cancer therapy. The inherent safety of source encapsulations is demonstrated by 30 yr of experience and by US Bureau of Mines tests of source survivability during explosions. The production and distribution center for the US Department of Energy (DOE) Californium Program is the Radiochemical Engineering Development Center (REDC) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). DOE sells 252Cf to commercial reencapsulators domestically and internationally. Sealed 252Cf sources are also available for loan to agencies and subcontractors of the US government and to universities for educational, research and medical applications. The REDC has established the Californium User Facility (CUF) for Neutron Science to make its large inventory of 252Cf sources available to researchers for irradiations inside uncontaminated hot cells. Experiments at the CUF include a land mine detection system, neutron damage testing of solid-state detectors, irradiation of human cancer cells for boron neutron capture therapy experiments and irradiation of rice to induce genetic mutations.
Boron Neutron Capture Therapy↗