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PubMed2003

Barriers to interlock implementation.

This commentary reviews current and past vehicle interlock programs for impaired driving offenders with a focus on the challenges that courts and motor vehicle departments face in attempting to implement mandatory programs as required by current federal legislation. There are few offenders in interlock programs compared to the large number of impaired drivers arrested each year. This suggests that, to increase participation, courts will have to threaten more severe sanctions for those offenders who reject interlock programs. A combination of electronic house arrest with interlock programs is suggested as a method of maximizing interlock use.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

Processing of physiological signals in automotive research.

The development of innovative driver assistance systems requires the evaluation of the predisposed hypotheses such as acceptance and driving safety. For this purpose, the conduction of experiments with end-users as subjects is necessary. Analysis and evaluation are based on the recording of numerous sensor values and system variables. Video, gaze and physiological data are recorded for the analysis of gaze distraction and emotional reactions of subjects to system behaviour. In this paper, a modular data streaming and processing architecture is suggested and a concept for this architecture is defined for consistent data evaluation, which integrates off-the-shelf products for data analysis and evaluation.

Automobile Driving↗
PubMed2004

Quantifying the role of risk-taking behaviour in causation of serious road crash-related injury.

This study was designed to quantify the increased risk of road crash-related injury, which can be attributed to risk-taking behaviour. A case-control study was conducted to compare motor vehicle drivers (car and bike) who had been hospitalised for injuries following crashes with population-based controls. Cases were recruited prospectively over 12 months and controls were randomly selected from license holders (car and bike) living in the same geographical location as cases. A self-administered questionnaire was used to ascertain participants' driving behaviour, general risk-taking behaviour and selected demographic characteristics. After adjusting for demographic variables, number of years of driving and total distance driven per week, logistic regression analysis showed that a high risk acceptance was associated with an eight-fold increased risk of having a crash that resulted in serious injury (OR 7.8, 95% CI 4.2-15.8). The findings of this study support the suggestion that certain host factors increase the risk of crash-related serious injury. There would appear to be a reasonable argument for persisting with injury prevention programmes, which concentrate on host as well as environment risk factor reduction.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1994

Epidemiologic characteristics of drivers, vehicles, pedestrians and road environments involved in road traffic injuries in rural Thailand.

This report presents descriptive epidemiology of vehicle-related crashes that caused severe injuries in a defined geographical area in northern Thailand, conducted to determine the nature of injuries and factors that contributed to the crashes. In each incident, the driver and other victims were identified and interviewed by a trained public health worker using a standard investigation form. During 1991, 286 single-vehicle crashes (66.4%), 117 crashes with other vehicles (27.1%), and 28 crashes involving pedestrians (6.5%) occurred in the area. These crashes injured 581 persons (551 vehicle occupants and 30 pedestrians), of whom 36 (6.2%) died. The vehicles involved in the crashes included 11 bicycles (2.3%), 371 motorcycles (78.6%), and 90 other motor vehicles (ie, pick-up trucks, lorries, and cars) (19.1%). Motorcycle-related crashes accounted for the majority of injuries and deaths. Driver risk factors for traffic injuries, such as alcohol consumption, lack of a valid driving licence, limited driving experience, and being a teenage driver, occurred more commonly among drivers of motorcycles than of other motor vehicles. Poor vehicle conditions and road environments reported in some incidents may have posed additional risks. Pedestrian factors, including young and old age, and alcohol use, may also have contributed to the occurrence of pedestrian injuries. Our system of data collection using an investigation form can provide relevant information, leading to the development of appropriate accident prevention programs for the community.

Accident Prevention↗
PubMed2003

Breath alcohol ignition interlock devices: controlling the recidivist.

This study compares the recidivism rates of two groups of Illinois drivers who had their driver's licenses revoked for alcohol-impaired driving and who received restricted driving permits. Drivers in both groups had more than two driving under the influence (DUI) actions against their record within 5 years or were classed as level III alcohol dependents. Drivers in one group were required to install breath alcohol ignition interlock devices in their vehicles and drivers in the other group were not. The research found that drivers with the interlock were one-fifth as likely to be arrested for DUI during the 1 year the device was installed as the comparison group, which did not have the device. However, once the ignition interlock was removed, drivers in this group rapidly returned to DUI arrest rates similar to those in the comparison group. These findings echo previous literature. Additionally, the study showed that this voluntary program in Illinois reached only 16% of the drivers who met the requirements for installing the interlock device. Finally, this study found that individuals who were removed from the interlock program and returned to revoked status continued to drive. Within 3 years, approximately 50% of this latter group were involved in a crash or were arrested for DUI or with an invalid driver's license. Conclusions drawn from the study suggest that the breath alcohol ignition interlock device is effective in preventing continued driving while impaired. However, the large-scale effectiveness of the device is limited since most of the drivers eligible for the device do not have it installed. To have a significant impact, the interlock device must represent a better alternative to drivers whose licenses were suspended or revoked because of alcohol arrests compared to remaining on revoked status without having the device installed. Finally the research suggests that, given the rapid return to predevice recidivism, the devices should remain installed until drivers can demonstrate an extended period of being alcohol free.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2002

Evaluation of a combined brake-accelerator pedal.

Over the years, designers have developed various combined brake-accelerator pedals in an effort to eliminate the operator's risk of pressing the wrong pedal as well as to reduce his or her reaction time in braking. The goal of this study is to highlight problems that drivers may face when they switch between pedal systems. Eighteen male and female drivers varying in age participated in the study. The evaluation was carried out during special driving maneuvers and in normal traffic in which all drivers used the same test vehicle. The results indicate that drivers were able to learn the new combined pedal mechanism quickly and effortlessly and that the number of mistakes was extremely low during the acquisition phase in learning the new system. The drivers reported that they preferred the combined brake-accelerator pedal to the conventional pedals, noting that the combined pedal offered greater physical comfort and was considerably more natural to operate. Because of the risk of compensation, whereby increased safety is forfeited as a result of reduced safety margins, future experiments of the new combined pedal are desirable.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Dad, may I have the keys? Factors influencing which vehicles teenagers drive.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of vehicle safety features, particularly vehicle size and weight, compared with other factors in parental decisions about choosing vehicles for teens to drive. METHODS: Written questionnaire to parents of teenagers attending drivers education training. RESULTS: The response rate to the survey was 62.6%. Two thirds reported that the teen would drive an existing family vehicle, 10.5% would buy an additional vehicle, and 20.3% would buy another vehicle as well as have the teen drive an existing family vehicle. Large size was important to only approximately 40% of families purchasing a car for the teen or families in which the teen would use an existing family vehicle. Gas mileage and other safety features were ranked as more important even in families in which a large car was available in the household. CONCLUSIONS: Families did not rank vehicle size and weight as important as other, less effective safety features in choosing cars for their teens. Information about vehicle crash-worthiness should be incorporated into drivers education and other programs reaching new teen drivers and their families.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Professional drivers: protection needed for a high-risk occupation.

"On the job" motor vehicle deaths number more than 4,000 annually in the U.S. and comprise nearly one-third of all work-related deaths. Yet the Department of Labor has set no standards relating to on-the-road safety of the millions of workers whose jobs entail large amounts of driving, and Department of Transportation standards affecting occupational safety cover only drivers in interstate commerce. Drivers of some commercial vehicles, such as heavy trucks, are at special risk of injury because trucks have usually been exempted for many years from federal motor vehicle safety standards--such as standards for brakes and seatbelts--designed to prevent crashes or protect occupants in crashes. Observations based on a series of 150 fatal crashes involving tractor trailers illustrate the need for better protection of this large population of high-risk workers. Clarification of responsibility within the various federal agencies and application of available knowledge and technology are essential.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1999

Effects of ignition interlock license restrictions on drivers with multiple alcohol offenses: a randomized trial in Maryland.

OBJECTIVES: This investigation sought to test the effectiveness of a statewide ignition interlock license restriction program for drivers with multiple alcohol-related traffic offenses. METHODS: A total of 1387 multiple offenders eligible for license reinstatement were randomly assigned to participate in an ignition interlock program (experimental group) or in the conventional postlicensing treatment program (control group). The arrest rates of these 2 groups for alcohol traffic offenses were compared for 1 year during the ignition interlock license restriction program and for 1 year after unrestricted driving privileges were returned. RESULTS: Participation in the interlock program reduced offenders' risk of committing an alcohol traffic violation within the first year by about 65%. The alcohol traffic violation rate during the first year was significantly less for participants in the interlock program (2.4%) than for those in the control group (6.7%). However, there was no statistically significant difference between these groups in the second year, after the interlock license restriction was lifted. CONCLUSIONS: Ignition interlock license restriction programs are effective at reducing recidivism among drivers with multiple alcohol offenses, at least while the restriction is in effect.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Reaction times to neon, LED, and fast incandescent brake lamps.

Standard incandescent brake lamps have a relatively slow rise time. It takes approximately a quarter of a second for them to reach 90% of asymptotic light output, causing potential delays in responses by following drivers. The present study evaluated reaction times to brake signals from standard incandescent brake lamps and from three alternative brake lamps with substantially faster rise times: neon, LED, and fast incandescent. The study, performed in a laboratory, simulated a daytime driving condition. The subject's task was to respond as quickly as possible to the onset of either of two brake lamps in the visual periphery, while engaged in a central tracking task. Brake signals were presented at two levels of luminous intensity. The results showed that reaction times to the alternative brake lamps were faster than to the standard incandescent lamp, with the advantage averaging 166 ms for the LED and neon lamps, and 135 ms for the fast incandescent lamp. A reduction of the signals' luminous intensity from 42 cd to 5 cd increased the reaction time by 84 ms.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Observations of seating position of front seat occupants relative to the side of the vehicle.

This study was an on-road observational study of the seating position and limb position of front seat occupants relevant to the side of the car for a representative sample of occupants during straight road driving and turning manoeuvres. A video camera captured over 650 front-on images of passenger car occupants in Metropolitan Melbourne. Results showed a significant numbers of occupants were seated out-of-position while travelling on the road and that a number of these were seated in a manner that may possibly result in injury from the deployment of a side airbag. This was particularly so while turning, a situation common in many side impacts. A substantial number of front seat occupants' arms were exposed to severe injury in the event of a side impact crash. These findings highlight a number of aspects of seating behaviour of driver and front passengers that need to be taken into account when designing side impact airbags.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Other high-risk factors for young drivers--how graduated licensing does, doesn't, or could address them.

PROBLEM: Young drivers, particularly those who are newly licensed, have a very high crash risk. This paper examines the risk factors underlying their high crash rates and assesses the extent to which existing graduated licensing programs address these risks and whether improvements to these programs should be considered. METHOD: Review and synthesis of the literature. RESULTS: The elevated risk among young drivers of being in an injury crash is the result of a number of factors found alone or in combination, such as risky driving, alcohol use, seat belt nonuse, driver distraction, fatigue, and vehicle choice. Nighttime and passenger restrictions, adopted widely in the United States, work by keeping drivers out of hazardous situations rather than by addressing risk factors directly. However, the risk factors remain in play in driving situations not specifically restricted by law. Although other graduated licensing components adopted around the world-more stringent exit tests (i.e., you need to pass a test to move to the next stage), hazard perception tests, and restrictions on speed, vehicle power, and roadway access-make sense based on the identified risk factors, they are not yet supported by research. Should research findings warrant it, consideration should be given to providing guidance to parents about how to keep their beginning drivers safe, including information on vehicle choice. IMPACT ON RESEARCH, PRACTICE, AND POLICY: Researchers should continue to monitor and to evaluate innovative approaches to reduce the crash risk of young drivers. The effectiveness of new approaches should be established before adoption on a wider scale takes place.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2003

Investigation of work-related disorders in truck drivers using RULA method.

A high incidence of spinal disorders is observed in professional drivers; in particular, back and neck pain result in high rates of morbidity and low retirement age. A sample of 77 drivers, of rubbish-collection vehicles who sit in a standard posture and of road-washing vehicles, who drive with the neck and trunk flexed, bent and twisted, was studied using RULA, a method for the evaluation of the exposure to risk factors associated with work-related upper-limb disorders. Results showed a significant association between trunk and neck scores and all self-reported pains, aches or discomforts in the trunk or neck regions in all subjects. In particular, the neck score was significant in both postures, reflecting high loading of the neck. Significantly different posture scores were also recorded for drivers using an adjustable vs. a non-adjustable seat. In this first RULA study of the working posture of professional truck drivers, the method proved to be a suitable tool for the rapid evaluation of the loading of neck and trunk.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Anti-lock brake system: an assessment of training on driver effectiveness.

When activated correctly, Anti-Lock Brake Systems (ABS) can provide drivers with the ability to stop a vehicle in shorter distances and allow for more vehicle control under heavy braking than conventional brake systems. This is especially true under wet or icy road conditions. However, it is believed that many drivers are either unaware of the correct method of activation or they revert back to the old method of pumping the brakes when they are faced with a hard braking situation. This paper examines the effectiveness of implementing low-cost training methods for alerting drivers to the correct brake activation technique. A 4-page, color training pamphlet was developed and subjects were given a short period of time to read it over before being asked to drive on an icy test track. Results indicated that those subjects who received the training were able to stop in shorter distances in a straight line braking event and more often used the correct brake activation technique than those subjects who did not receive the training. However, the stopping distance benefits were not realized in the curved and surprise braking events. These results suggest that the transfer of verbal knowledge may have value as a means for solving the apparent problem of improper ABS usage. However, some additional research should be done to validate these results. Since this experiment was conducted directly after the material was read, the possibility exists that without reinforcement, the trained braking techniques might become extinct in a short period of time.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

Measuring air quality to protect children from secondhand smoke in cars.

BACKGROUND: Secondhand tobacco smoke (SHS) is a major, preventable contributor to acute and chronic adverse health outcomes that affect children disproportionately. The predominant source of SHS among children is domestic exposure, and while up to two thirds of U.S. households have car smoking bans, an unacceptable number of children remain vulnerable. To help promote more effective protection through legislation, health communication strategies, or behavioral interventions, data demonstrating the adverse effect of SHS on air quality in cars are needed. METHODS: Secondhand tobacco smoke in a motor vehicle under actual driving conditions was monitored by measuring respirable suspended particles (RSPs) of less than 2.5 microns in diameter, and carbon monoxide. Forty-five driving trials were conducted, using teams of volunteer drivers and smokers recruited from the general community. Three smoking conditions (nonsmoking baseline, active smoking, and immediate post-smoking period, each 5 minutes) were crossed with two ventilation conditions (windows open, closed) in a 3 x 2 within-sessions factorial design. RESULTS: The highest mean observed RSP level was 271 mug/m(3), which is unsafe, particularly for children. Peak RSP levels were considerably higher. RSPs and carbon monoxide increased significantly from baseline after smoking, and these increases were greatest during the closed ventilation condition, compared with open ventilation. CONCLUSIONS: Private passenger cars are a domestic environment with the potential to yield unsafe levels of SHS contaminants. These data may assist policymakers and health advocates to promote protective strategies to ensure smoke-free domestic environments for children.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed2003

Intelligent transport systems and occupational therapy practice.

This paper explores some of the most widely available in-vehicle information technology systems (intelligent transport systems, or ITSs) and discusses their implications for occupational therapy practice. Therapists often evaluate the impact of functional impairment on driving ability and, with an ageing population, the need for such assessments is increasing. Concurrently, ITSs are becoming increasingly common and it is important that their potential effects on both driving task demand and crash risk are considered by therapists when assessing drivers. Interactions between drivers and ITSs are analysed in an information processing framework, highlighting the importance of drivers' cognitive functioning. It is evident that the ability to use an ITS while driving is influenced by a driver's sensory, perceptual, cognitive and motor capacities and skills, all of which are likely to vary with age, disability and/or driving experience. The compatibility of ITS interface design with drivers' capacities and needs is crucial in determining how effectively, and safely, a particular system will be used. Therapists need to analyse interface demands in relation to the ability of individual drivers to cope with or benefit from an ITS, and to consider the potential for calibrating particular products to the specific requirements of individual drivers. It is concluded that many ITSs are at an early stage of development and should not be recommended without critical evaluation of their utility, usability and safety for the intended users. Therapists face the challenge of understanding the parameters and implications of ITSs so that they can assist their clients to optimize their occupational performance despite functional limitations, while also protecting the safety of other road users. Standards related to interface design are still undergoing development, and there is an urgent need for further research to evaluate the impact of vehicle technologies on human behaviour and road safety.

Automobile Driving↗
PubMed2004

Imperfect in-vehicle collision avoidance warning systems can aid drivers.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of an in-vehicle collision avoidance warning system (IVCAWS) on driver performance. A driving simulator was driven by 135 licensed drivers. Of these, 120 received alerts from the IVCAWS when their headway to a lead car was less than 2 s, and the other 15 (the control group) received no alerts. Drivers received varied alert interfaces: auditory, visual, and multimodal. The system had varied levels of reliability, determined by both false alarm rate and failure of the IVCAWS to alert to short headway. Results indicated that the IVCAWS led to safer (longer) headway maintenance. High false alarm rates induced drivers to slow down unnecessarily; large numbers of missed alerts did not have any significant impact on drivers. Driver acceptance of the system was mixed. Interface played a role in driver reliance on the system, with the multimodal interfaces generating least reliance. Actual or potential applications of this research include IVCAWS interface selection for greater system efficacy and user acceptance and the advisability of implementation, even of imperfect systems, for drivers who seek to maintain a safer headway.

Accidents, Traffic↗