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PubMed1992

The collectivisation of health insurance.

The question that is dealt with in this article concerns the reasons for collectivisation of health insurance. This is not the same as collectivisation of health care. The The theoretical model of Usher, with the assumption that a commodity will be socialized if and only if a majority can be found in favour of socialization, appears relevant for the explanation of the origin and growth of social health insurance. Empirical evidence for the Netherlands, where reforms in the social health insurance are going on and common sense suggests that the taste factor is not very relevant, because preferences do not diverge very much among voters. This makes the income factor dominant. Since a majority will profit from socialization of health insurance, there is a strong tendency for collectivisation.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2006

New bitter-masking compounds: hydroxylated benzoic acid amides of aromatic amines as structural analogues of homoeriodictyol.

Starting from the known bitter-masking flavanones eriodictyol and homoeriodictyol from herba santa some structurally related hydroxybenzoic acid amides of benzylamines were synthesized and evaluated as masking agents toward bitterness of caffeine by sensory methods. The closest structural relatives of homoeriodictyol, the hydroxybenzoic acid vanillylamides 5-9, were the most active and were able to reduce the bitterness of a 500 mg L(-1) caffeine solution by about 30% at a concentration of 100 mg L(-1). 2,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid vanillylamide 7 showed a clear dose-dependent activity as inhibitor of the bitter taste of caffein between 5 and 500 mg L(-1). Additionally, it was possible to reduce the bitterness of quinine and salicine but not of the bitter peptide N-l-leucyl-l-tryptophan. Combinations of homoeriodictyol and amide 7 showed no synergistic or antagonistic changes in activity. The results for model compound 7 suggested that the hitherto unknown masking mechanism is probably the same for flavanones and the new amides. In the future, the new amides may be alternatives for the expensive flavanones to create flavor solutions to mask bitterness of pharmaceuticals or foodstuffs.

Amides↗
PubMed2003

The three-dimensional solution structure of NaD1, a new floral defensin from Nicotiana alata and its application to a homology model of the crop defense protein alfAFP.

NMR spectroscopy and simulated annealing calculations have been used to determine the three-dimensional structure of NaD1, a novel antifungal and insecticidal protein isolated from the flowers of Nicotiana alata. NaD1 is a basic, cysteine-rich protein of 47 residues and is the first example of a plant defensin from flowers to be characterized structurally. Its three-dimensional structure consists of an alpha-helix and a triple-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet that are stabilized by four intramolecular disulfide bonds. NaD1 features all the characteristics of the cysteine-stabilized alphabeta motif that has been described for a variety of proteins of differing functions ranging from antibacterial insect defensins and ion channel-perturbing scorpion toxins to an elicitor of the sweet taste response. The protein is biologically active against insect pests, which makes it a potential candidate for use in crop protection. NaD1 shares 31% sequence identity with alfAFP, an antifungal protein from alfalfa that confers resistance to a fungal pathogen in transgenic potatoes. The structure of NaD1 was used to obtain a homology model of alfAFP, since NaD1 has the highest level of sequence identity with alfAFP of any structurally characterized antifungal defensin. The structures of NaD1 and alfAFP were used in conjunction with structure-activity data for the radish defensin Rs-AFP2 to provide an insight into structure-function relationships. In particular, a putative effector site was identified in the structure of NaD1 and in the corresponding homology model of alfAFP.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1981

Structure--sweetness relationship of L-aspartyl dipeptide analogues. A receptor site topology.

The relationship between structure and the sweet potency of L-aspartyl dipeptide analogues was investigated by physicochemical parameters and regression analysis. The dipeptide analogues reported were divided into the following four classes: L-aspartic acid amides, L-aspartylaminoethyl esters, L-aspartylaminopropionates, and L-aspartyl-aminoacetates. The analysis carried out for each class indicated that the electron-withdrawing effect of the substituents directed to the peptide bond and the steric dimensions of the molecules are important in eliciting the sweet taste. The values of coefficients of the electronic sigma terms in the correlations for L-aspartic acid amides, L-aspartylaminoethyl esters, and L-aspartylaminopropionates were approximately 0.7, indicating a common basic site on the receptor surface. The value for L-aspartylaminoacetates was approximately 1.5, and this value suggests, together with the factor of the participation of steric parameters, a closer or geometrically more proper fit to the receptor, explaining the generally higher potency of this class compared to the other three. The receptor model drawn based on these quantitative analyses appears to be consistent with other classes of sweeteners of apparently unrelated structures.

Aspartic Acid↗
PubMed2005

Factors associated with perceived oral health status in older individuals.

AIM: To assess factors associated with perception of oral health in older individuals. DESIGN: A cross sectional study. SETTING: A densely populated urban area in Sri Lanka. PARTICIPANTS: 585 older adults aged 60 years and above of which 475 were living at home and 110 in institutions. The present analysis is limited to 235 subjects who were subjected to a clinical oral examination. METHOD: The data were collected by means of an interviewer-administered questionnaire and a clinical oral examination. RESULTS: Overall, 48% of the dentate and 42% of the edentate perceived their oral health as poor. The final model of the hierarchical logistic regression analysis for the dentate revealed that presence of retained roots, mobile teeth, >20 missing teeth and perceived need for dental care were significantly associated with poor perceived oral health status. For the edentate, perceived need for dental care, loss of taste sensation and difficulty in eating were significantly associated with poor perceived oral health status. CONCLUSIONS: Factors associated with perceived oral health status differed between the dentate and the edentate. Clinical oral health indicators emerged as significant predictors of perceived oral health status in the dentate although the explanatory power of these indicators on perception of oral health was low.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

Type 1 diabetes mellitus, xerostomia, and salivary flow rates.

OBJECTIVE: The Oral Health Science Institute at the University of Pittsburgh has completed a cross-sectional epidemiologic study of 406 subjects with type 1 diabetes and 268 control subjects without diabetes that assessed the associations between oral health and diabetes. This report describes the prevalence of dry-mouth symptoms (xerostomia), the prevalence of hyposalivation in this population, and the possible interrelationships between salivary dysfunction and diabetic complications. STUDY DESIGN: The subjects with diabetes were participants in the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications study who were enrolled in an oral health substudy. Control subjects were spouses or best friends of participants or persons recruited from the community through advertisements in local newspapers. Assessments of salivary function included self-reported xerostomia measures and quantification of resting and stimulated whole saliva flow rates. RESULTS: Subjects with diabetes reported symptoms of dry mouth more frequently than did control subjects. Salivary flow rates were also impaired in the subjects with diabetes. Regression models of potential predictor variables were created for the 3 self-reported xerostomia measures and 4 salivary flow rate variables. Of the medical diabetic complications studied (ie, retinopathy, peripheral and autonomic neuropathy, nephropathy, and peripheral vascular disease), only neuropathy was found to be associated with xerostomia and decreased salivary flow measures. A report of dry-mouth symptoms was associated with current use of cigarettes, dysgeusia (report of a bad taste), and more frequent snacking behavior. Xerogenic medications and elevated fasting blood glucose concentrations were significantly associated with decreased salivary flow. Resting salivary flow rates less than 0.01 mL/min were associated with a slightly higher prevalence of dental caries. Subjects who reported higher levels of alcohol consumption were less likely to have lower rates of stimulated salivary flow. CONCLUSIONS: Subjects with type 1 diabetes who had developed neuropathy more often reported symptoms of dry mouth as well as symptoms of decreased salivary flow rates. Because of the importance of saliva in the maintenance and the preservation of oral health, management of oral diseases in diabetic patients should include a comprehensive evaluation of salivary function.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

NCD3G: a novel nine-cysteine domain in family 3 GPCRs.

The NCD3G [for nine-cysteine domain of family 3 G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)] domain is a novel protein domain that is conserved in family 3 GPCRs, including metabotropic glutamate receptors, calcium-sensing receptors, pheromone receptors and taste receptors, with the exception of GABA(B) receptors. The NCD3G domain contains nine highly conserved cysteine residues. Structural predictions suggest that NCD3G might possess four beta strands and three disulfide bridges. The structural model of NCD3G highlights the conserved residues co-segregated with certain familial diseases.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Fourth-grade children's consumption of fruit and vegetable items available as part of school lunches is closely related to preferences.

OBJECTIVE: To use data from observations and interviews to document fourth-graders' preferences for, and consumption of, fruits compared to vegetables available as part of school lunches. DESIGN: Observations and interviews were conducted for studies regarding the impact of time interval between eating and reporting on the accuracy of children's school lunch recalls. SUBJECTS/SETTINGS: Children were recruited from up to 4 schools in one district during 3 school years; 63% agreed to participate. Randomly selected children (n = 237) were each observed eating school lunch once and were interviewed (regarding items eaten and preferences for items eaten) within 11/2 hours or the next morning. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Observed consumption of servings of items available as part of school lunch was recorded as none, taste, little bit, half, most, and all. Response options for preferences for items available as part of school lunch were liked not at all, a little, and a lot. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Mixed-model analysis of variance. RESULTS: Preferences were higher for fruits than vegetables. As preferences increased, consumption increased (P <.0001). Consumption of fruits compared to vegetables was similar after adjusting for preferences. IMPLICATIONS: Research is needed to understand how to increase children's preferences for vegetables as a means of increasing consumption.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Temporal codes and computations for sensory representation and scene analysis.

This paper considers a space of possible temporal codes, surveys neurophysiological and psychological evidence for their use in nervous systems, and presents examples of neural timing networks that operate in the time-domain. Sensory qualities can be encoded temporally by means of two broad strategies: stimulus-driven temporal correlations (phase-locking) and stimulus-triggering of endogenous temporal response patterns. Evidence for stimulus-related spike timing patterns exists in nearly every sensory modality, and such information can be potentially utilized for representation of stimulus qualities, localization of sources, and perceptual grouping. Multiple strategies for temporal (time, frequency, and code-division) multiplexing of information for transmission and grouping are outlined. Using delays and multiplications (coincidences), neural timing networks perform time-domain signal processing operations to compare, extract and separate temporal patterns. Separation of synthetic double vowels by a recurrent neural timing network is used to illustrate how coherences in temporal fine structure can be exploited to build up and separate periodic signals with different fundamentals. Timing nets constitute a time-domain scene analysis strategy based on temporal pattern invariance rather than feature-based labeling, segregation and binding of channels. Further potential implications of temporal codes and computations for new kinds of neural networks are explored.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2006

Murine taste-immune associative learning.

Taste-immune associative learning can result from contingent pairings of an immune-competent unconditioned stimulus (US) with a gustative conditioned stimulus (CS). Recalling such an association may induce a set of physiological responses affecting behavior, endocrine, and immune functions. We have established a model of behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression employing the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine A (CsA) as the US and saccharin as the CS in rats and humans. In order to investigate the inter-species generalization of this neuro-immune interaction, we tested the feasibility of this paradigm in mice. In a single-bottle scheme, male BALB/c mice (n=5) were conditioned by conducting three association trials and a single recall trial. Control groups (n=5/group) were designed to assure associative learning, pharmacological effects of the US, and placebo effect. Results show that CsA-conditioned animals displayed significant immunosuppression in the spleen after recall, measured by in vitro T-lymphocyte proliferation, and IL-2 production. However, the same animals did not show evidence of avoidance behavior to the CS. In contrast, evoking the association of saccharin-lithium chloride (inducing gastric malaise) in another set of animals (n=4/group) resulted in significant and pronounced avoidance of the taste (CS). These animals also displayed significant suppression of splenic T-lymphocyte responsiveness after the recall phase. The present results indicate that mice seem to be capable of associating a gustative stimulus with CsA, resulting in behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression without affecting appetitive behavior.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2006

The relative effects of transection of the gustatory branches of the seventh and ninth cranial nerves on NaCl taste detection in rats.

Chorda tympani nerve (CT) transection in rats severely impairs NaCl taste detection. These rats can detect higher concentrations of NaCl, however, suggesting that remaining oral nerves maintain some salt sensibility. Rats were tested in a gustometer with a 2-response operant taste-detection task before and after sham surgery (n = 5), combined transection of the CT and the greater superficial petrosal nerves (GSP; 7x, n = 6), or transection of the glossopharyngeal nerve (GL; 9x, n = 4). Thresholds did not significantly change after sham surgery. Although the GL responds to NaCl and innervates nearly 60% of total taste buds, 9x surgery had no effect. However, 7x surgery increased NaCl detection threshold by approximately 2.5 log(10) units, greater than that reported for CT transection alone. These results suggest that the GSP contributes to NaCl sensitivity in rats and also demonstrate that the GL and perhaps the superior laryngeal and lingual nerve proper can maintain some NaCl detectability at high concentrations. These findings confirm the primacy of the 7th nerve relative to the 9th nerve in sensibility of NaCl in the rat model.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1982

Induction of high voluntary ethanol intake in dependent rats.

The experimental conditions under which oral high intake may be induced in previously intoxicated rats have been investigated. Seventeen rats were administered intragastrically with 10 g/kg/day of ethanol for 15 days. At cessation of treatment, they were presented a single bottle of alcoholic solution (10% v/v) during 24 hr. For the following 6 days, they received either an ethyl alcohol solution or water in alternation for 8 hours each. Ethanol treated rats exhibited a high oral intake of ethanol equivalent to the previously injected doses. Controls displayed a significantly lower intake of ethanol. It is concluded that the suppression of the withdrawal state by an initial priming oral intake of ethanol in physically dependent rats is a condition for the development of a conditioned taste preference for ethanol as a basis for the behavioral dependence.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2005

Does prenatal stress affect latent inhibition? It depends on the gender.

The present experiment was designed to examine the effects of prenatal stress and gender in latent inhibition. Prenatal stress has been proposed as a risk factor both for depression and for schizophrenia, and both of these syndromes are associated with alterations in the functional state of the dopamine system. There is also some evidence that prenatal stress can produce changes in dopamine activity, although the details of the stress-induced changes are a matter of debate. Latent inhibition (LI), which is strongly dependent on dopaminergic activity, consists in delayed Pavlovian conditioning about a stimulus that previously signalled no consequence. We induced prenatal stress by exposing gestating dams to a daily constraint stress during the last week of pregnancy. We tested the rats for LI of conditioned taste aversion by exposing them to sucrose for 3 days prior to conditioning. Irrespective of stress or gender, latent inhibition was observed but the degree of LI varied as a function of both prenatal stress and gender. Unstressed males showed less LI than unstressed females, but prenatal stress increased the amount of LI only in the males. These results are inconsistent with the use of prenatal stress as an animal model for schizophrenia. A model is proposed that accounts for the relationships between gender, dopamine function, cognitive changes and psychiatric pathology.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

A quantitative microbial risk assessment of activated carbon point-of-use filters and the risk of Legionella pneumophila.

Activated carbon point-of-use (POU) filters have become increasingly popular. Often certified to remove lead and improve water taste, these filters are not certified to remove bacteria. In this study, we examined the effects of using POU filters on the risk posed by Legionella pneumophila (L. pneumophila) in a quantitative microbial risk assessment model. Release rates of L. pneumophila were measured for new and artificially aged (ripened) POU filters. Additionally, we measured aerosol concentrations produced by water fixtures that might have a POU filter (e.g., drinking fountain bubbler, faucet). We modeled scenarios without filters (with and without residual chlorine) and with filters (new and ripe filters), four water usage activities (drinking from a drinking fountain, handwashing, dishwashing, and showering), and three age groups (children, adults, and elderly). Systems with the highest to lowest risk were those without filters and without chlorine, those with ripe filters, those without filters and with chlorine, and finally, those with new filters. The risk of illness decreased for activities with shorter exposure times, such as drinking and handwashing. The L. pneumophila concentrations, aerosol concentrations, and exposure time had the largest impacts on the risk of illness. The maximum allowable concentration of L. pneumophila needed to achieve a 10-4 target annual risk of illness was 0.02 copies/mL. This study showed that POU filters may reduce L. pneumophila risk but only if the filter is new (&#x2264; 1 week old before the filter ripens significantly), and other strategies for reducing L. pneumophila concentrations or decreasing exposure time may be needed to further decrease the risk of illness.

Legionella pneumophila↗
PubMed1983

Effects of novelty and familiarity on illness-induced aversions to food and place cues in coyotes (Canis latrans).

Two experiments investigated the effects of novelty and familiarity on illness-induced aversions to taste and place cues in coyotes (Canis latrans). Coyotes were made ill on familiar food laced with lithium chloride in a novel place and then received preference tests. In Experiment 1, coyotes avoided the previously poisoned familiar food in the novel treatment place but readily ate the same familiar food in a familiar safe place. In Experiment 2, the results of Experiment 1 were replicated, and it was found that coyotes would eat a different familiar food in the novel treatment place. On the basis of the results of this and other studies, a model for averting animals from places where they are not wanted is presented.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Caffeine-associated stimuli elicit conditioned responses: an experimental model of the placebo effect.

RATIONALE: A neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with administration of a drug may elicit a conditioned response. This process, termed pharmacological classical conditioning, may be important in the understanding of placebo effects. OBJECTIVE: The unconditioned response to caffeine is increased physiological and psychological arousal. The present study investigated whether stimuli associated with the use of caffeine, i.e. the smell and taste of coffee, elicited a conditioned increase in arousal. It was also investigated whether conditioned arousal modulated the unconditioned arousal induced by caffeine. METHODS: Twenty subjects who drank at least two cups of coffee per day were exposed to four conditions in a within-subjects design, where the subjects received coffee or orange juice crossed with placebo or 2 mg/kg caffeine. Dependent variables were skin conductance responses and startle reflexes to 85 dB noise bursts, skin conductance levels, blood pressure, heart rate, and subjective measures of arousal. RESULTS: Both caffeine (caffeinated juice) and caffeine-associated stimuli (decaffeinated coffee) increased subjective and physiological arousal. When caffeine and caffeine-associated stimuli were presented together (caffeinated coffee), a non-significant tendency towards an additive effect of the conditioned arousal on the unconditioned arousal to caffeine was seen in some dependent variables. CONCLUSIONS: Presentation of caffeine-associated stimuli to caffeine-users elicited conditioned responses similar to the unconditioned drug response. Thus, presentation of caffeine-associated stimuli could be used as an experimental model of placebo effects.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

A 3D structural and conformational study of procyanidin dimers in water and hydro-alcoholic media as viewed by NMR and molecular modeling.

The three-dimensional structures of 5 procyanidin dimers have been determined in a hydro-alcoholic medium and in water using 2D NMR and molecular mechanics. They are made from monomers of catechin (CAT) and epicatechin (EPI)-B1: EPI-CAT, B2: EPI-EPI, B3: CAT-CAT, B4: CAT-EPI and B2g: EPI-EPI-3-O-gallate. These tannins exist in two conformations that are in slow exchange in the NMR timescale (s), one is compact and the other extended. The compact form is found to dominate (76-98%) when the dimer is made of at least one CAT monomer (B1, B3, B4). Both forms are found in even proportions only in the case of procyanidin B2. The latter tannin can be converted into a dominant compact form when the lower EPI unit is galloylated. The finding of a predominant compact form for procyanidin dimers is discussed in relation with tannin-saliva protein interactions that are of importance for the wine-tasting/making processes.

Alcohols↗