Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Postpartum Programs”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 937 records · Page 52Linked to original sources
PubMed1986

Stressors, coping, and social supports of adolescent mothers.

This report describes the perceived stressors, coping strategies, and social supports of a group of adolescent mothers during their first month at home after delivery. In addition to concerns about the baby and the limitations imposed by motherhood, many of the young mothers considered their interpersonal relationships as problematic. Findings suggest that the puerperium was not a time of major distress for most of these young women. Factors contributing to a relatively smooth transition to motherhood were the adolescent's use of anticipatory coping prior to the birth, their extensive reliance on family support once at home, and their past experience with childcare. Sharing childcare with the family was an important component of the support received by these adolescents, and it is suggested that the adolescent's mobilization of social supports may be essential to ther adaptation to motherhood. Professionals were infrequently mentioned as sources of support even though a majority of the sample participated in special adolescent maternity programs. Finally, findings also suggest that problem-focused coping was used more often when dealing with concrete stressors, while emotion-focused coping was used more in response to interpersonal problems.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2003

Accelerated rubella control and congenital rubella syndrome prevention strengthen measles eradication: the Costa Rican experience.

In 2000, Costa Rica set a goal for accelerated rubella control and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) prevention in conjunction with its established measles eradication goal. To achieve this goal, a National Plan of Action for the integration of a measles-rubella (MR) vaccination strategy was implemented. The components of the national plan included conducting a national vaccination campaign with a single dose of MR vaccine for men and women aged 15-39 years, establishing routine postpartum MR vaccination of all previously unvaccinated women, maintaining high coverage among children with two doses of measles-mumps-rubella vaccine, strengthening the integrated measles and rubella surveillance system, and developing a CRS surveillance system. This report summarizes the results of a successful adult campaign. Targeting MR vaccination appropriately and using the opportunity to strengthen surveillance for rash illness has benefits beyond accelerated rubella control and CRS prevention, including strengthening of the measles eradication program.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Gestational diabetes and subsequent development of NIDDM in aboriginal women of northwestern Ontario.

OBJECTIVES: To determine (1) the risk of development of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in women with a previous history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), (2) the average duration between diagnoses of GDM and NIDDM, (3) various modes of presentation, and (4) adequacy of follow-up post diagnosis of GDM. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of women diagnosed with GDM in the Sioux Lookout Zone between 1985-1995. There were 4,211 pregnancies and 332 women with a diagnosis of GDM. Sixty-one charts were randomly selected. Both GDM and NIDDM were defined according to World Health Organization standards. RESULTS: Seventy percent of the women with GDM went on to develop NIDDM. The average duration between diagnosis of GDM and diagnosis of NIDDM was three years. Greater than 70% of the women developed NIDDM within four years post diagnosis of GDM. The majority presented with asymptomatic hyperglycemia (88%); 3% presented with acidosis; 6% presented with symptoms of polydipsia and polyuria; and 3% presented with abnormal weight gain. Specific physician-requested follow-up after six weeks postpartum occurred in only 38% of the cases. However six-week follow-up occurred in 41%, a yearly follow-up occurred in 61% of the women, and 81% of the women had some sort of follow-up post diagnosis of GDM. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of developing NIDDM after GDM is very high in Aboriginal women of the Sioux Lookout Zone. There is an urgent need for a structured follow-up program for this group of high-risk women. Furthermore, the offspring of these pregnancies should be a focus for follow-up and preventive programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

The overlapping territories of psychiatry and ethology.

There have been numerous attempts since 1965 to stimulate more utilization of ethological methods and concepts in psychiatry. This literature is reviewed and an attempt is made to identify the factors which have inhibited an enhancement of this interaction to date. Most of the previous articles on this subject have appeared in edited collections, rather than in more widely circulated psychiatric or medical journals. Some of the articles focus on ethological theory, others on ethological research findings, and several on clinical analogies between animal and human situations. Regarding the specific way in which to integrate ethological thought into psychiatry, most frequently a phylogenetic approach is emphasized, however a few authors stress methodological considerations. In this paper, it is argued that artifactual differences have been the primary impediment to more interaction between these two rather similar fields. Scientific language difficulties, educational differences, and personal factors are described in this regard. Also, the real differences in approach and methodology, relative interest in normal vs. abnormal behavior, the degree of willingness to accept a phylogenetic approach, and the breadth of behavior being studied by the two fields are described. Examples of current areas of applicability of ethology to psychiatry are given: the attachment systems, early infantile autism, methodology, social psychiatry, and psychiatric education. Of these, the area where the most utilized is that of the occurred and in which the findings of ethology have been the most utilized is that of the attachment systems. Clinically applicable studies based upon the premise that attachment systems exist as understood ethologically are reviewed. These include study of extra physical contact between mothers and infants at birth, the prediction of child abuse and neglect utilizing observations from the immediate postpartum period, the treatment of failure to thrive by teaching attachment behavior, and developmental differences at 1 year correlated with differences in maternal responsiveness at 3 months. The usefulness of a biological approach to behavior is discussed, particularly in terms of utilizing operational criteria and from the point of view of differentiating etiological, phenomenological, and treatment models. A curriculum stressing the writings of Tinbergen, Lorenz, Bowlby, and Hailman is presented for possible use in psychiatric training programs interested in teaching an ethological approach to psychiatry. A briefer curriculum is also suggested from the psychiatric literature for use by ethologists. The epistemology and methodology of ethology possible will be of more use to psychiatry than the content. It is the opinion of the authors that the difficulties which have inhibited significant cooperation between psychiatry and ethology in the past are mostly artifactual, that such cooperation could be useful to both fields, and that a beginning to such interaction will require mutual familiarity with the literature.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The breastfeeding self-efficacy scale: psychometric assessment of the short form.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to reduce the number of items on the original Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale (BSES) and psychometrically assess the revised BSES-Short Form (BSES-SF). DESIGN: As part of a longitudinal study, participants completed mailed questionnaires at 1, 4, and 8 weeks postpartum. SETTING: Health region in British Columbia. PARTICIPANTS: A population-based sample of 491 breastfeeding mothers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: BSES, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Perceived Stress Scale. RESULTS: Internal consistency statistics with the original BSES suggested item redundancy. As such, 18 items were deleted, using explicit reduction criteria. Based on the encouraging reliability analysis of the new 14-item BSES-SF, construct validity was assessed using principal components factor analysis, comparison of contrasted groups, and correlations with measures of similar constructs. Support for predictive validity was demonstrated through significant mean differences between breastfeeding and bottle feeding mothers at 4 (p < .001) and 8 (p < .001) weeks postpartum. Demographic response patterns suggested the BSES-SF is a unique tool to identify mothers at risk of prematurely discontinuing breastfeeding. CONCLUSIONS: These psychometric results indicate the BSES-SF is an excellent measure of breastfeeding self-efficacy and considered ready for clinical use to (a) identify breastfeeding mothers at high risk, (b) assess breastfeeding behaviors and cognitions to individualize confidence-building strategies, and (c) evaluate the effectiveness of various interventions and guide program development.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Factors affecting the duration of exclusive breastfeeding among HIV-infected and -uninfected women in Lusaka, Zambia.

Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) is optimal for infant health and is associated with decreased risk of mother-to-child HIV transmission compared with mixed feeding of breast milk and other foods. To investigate why many women stop EBF before the recommended 6 months, maternal and infant health and infant-feeding data were collected from 177 HIV-infected and 177-uninfected Zambian women regularly from 34 weeks gestation to 16 weeks postpartum. Despite strong support for good breastfeeding practice, only 37% of women were still EBF at week 16. Factors significantly associated with shorter duration of EBF were primiparity, maternal systemic illness, and infant length at 6 weeks. The results suggest that the association of EBF with lower rates of mother-to-child HIV transmission may not be causal but may be secondary to the reduced duration of EBF associated with poor maternal or infant health. Programs supporting EBF should include support for maternal health.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Factors influencing the duration of breastfeeding in the Sudbury region.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the duration of breastfeeding in the Sudbury Region and to identify the reasons why mothers wean before the Canadian Paediatric Society's recommended six month period. METHODS: Questionnaires addressing factors that influence the duration of breastfeeding were mailed to 350 breastfeeding mothers at one/two weeks, three months and six months after their postpartum discharge from hospital. RESULTS: Forty percent of mothers breastfed for the recommended six month period. Reported factors positively influencing longer durations of breastfeeding were higher education, higher family income, parity, previous breastfeeding experience, decision to breastfeed before the child was born and late introduction to solids. Reasons for weaning included perceived insufficient milk supply, fatigue, breast problems and return to work. Mothers' top three choices of services were home visits, telephone hot line and television programs. CONCLUSIONS: The duration of breastfeeding in the Sudbury Region is lower than the provincial average. Several modifiable factors associated with duration of breastfeeding were identified.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Efficacy of breastfeeding support provided by trained clinicians during an early, routine, preventive visit: a prospective, randomized, open trial of 226 mother-infant pairs.

BACKGROUND: Despite growing evidence of the benefits of prolonged breastfeeding for mother and infant health, the rate of breastfeeding at infant age of 6 months remains below the Healthy People 2010 goal. The greatest decrease in the breastfeeding rate occurs during the first 4 postpartum weeks. Mothers who discontinue breastfeeding early are more likely to report lack of confidence in their ability to breastfeed, problems with the infant latching or suckling, and lack of individualized encouragement from their clinicians in the early postdischarge period. Observational studies suggest that primary care physicians can increase breastfeeding rates through specific advice and practices during routine preventive visits. However, robust scientific evidence based on randomized, controlled trials is currently lacking. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether attending an early, routine, preventive, outpatient visit delivered in a primary care physician's office would improve breastfeeding outcomes. DESIGN: The study was a prospective, randomized, parallel-group, open trial. SETTING: Participants were recruited at a level 3 maternity facility, with an average of 2000 births per year, in France. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 231 mothers who had delivered a healthy singleton infant (gestational age: > or =37 completed weeks) and were breastfeeding on the day of discharge were recruited and randomized (116 were assigned to the intervention group and 115 to the control group) between October 1, 2001, and May 31, 2002; 226 mother-infant pairs (112 in the intervention group and 114 in the control group) contributed data on outcomes. INTERVENTION: Support for breastfeeding in the control group included the usual verbal encouragement provided by the maternity ward staff members, a general health assessment and an evaluation for evidence of successful breastfeeding behavior by the pediatrician working in the obstetrics department on the day of discharge, provision of the telephone number of a peer support group, mandatory routine, preventive, outpatient visits at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 months of infant age, and 10 weeks of paid maternity leave (extended to 18 weeks after the birth of the third child). In addition to the usual predischarge and postdischarge support, the mothers in the intervention group were invited to attend an individual, routine, preventive, outpatient visit in the office of 1 of the 17 participating primary care physicians (pediatricians or family physicians) within 2 weeks after the birth. The participating physicians received a 5-hour training program on breastfeeding, delivered in 2 parts in 1 month, before the beginning of the study. OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding reported at 4 weeks (defined as giving maternal milk as the only food source, with no other foods or liquids, other than vitamins or medications, being given). The secondary outcomes included any breastfeeding reported at 4 weeks, breastfeeding duration, breastfeeding difficulties, and satisfaction with breastfeeding experiences. Classification into breastfeeding categories reported at 4 weeks was based on 24-hour dietary recall. RESULTS: Ninety-two mothers (79.3%) assigned to the intervention group and 8 mothers (7.0%) assigned to the control group reported that they had attended the routine, preventive, outpatient visit in the office of 1 of the 17 primary care physicians participating in the study. Mothers in the intervention group were more likely to report exclusive breastfeeding at 4 weeks (83.9% vs 71.9%; hazard ratio: 1.17; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01-1.34) and longer breastfeeding duration (median: 18 weeks vs 13 weeks; hazard ratio: 1.40; 95% CI: 1.03-1.92). They were less likely to report any breastfeeding difficulties (55.3% vs 72.8%; hazard ratio: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.62-0.93). There was no significant difference between the 2 groups with respect to the rate of any breastfeeding at 4 weeks (89.3% vs 81.6%; hazard ratio: 1.09; 95% CI: 0.98-1.22) and the rate of mothers fairly or very satisfied with their breastfeeding experiences (91.1% vs 87.7%; hazard ratio: 1.04; 95% CI: 0.95-1.14). CONCLUSIONS: Although we cannot exclude the possibility that findings might differ in other health care systems, this study provides preliminary evidence of the efficacy of breastfeeding support through an early, routine, preventive visit in the offices of trained primary care physicians. Our findings also suggest that a short training program for practicing physicians might contribute to improving breastfeeding outcomes. Multifaceted interventions aiming to support breastfeeding should involve primary care physicians.

Ambulatory Care↗
PubMed1995

A longitudinal study of plasma insulin and glucagon in women with previous gestational diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether plasma insulin or glucagon predicts later development of diabetes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The subjects studied were 91 women with diet-treated GDM and 33 healthy women. Plasma insulin and glucagon during a 50-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were measured during pregnancy, postpartum, and at follow-up 5-11 years later. At follow-up, the women were also examined with a 75-g OGTT or an intravenous glucagon test. RESULTS: Twenty-seven (30%) of the women with previous GDM had abnormal glucose tolerance at follow-up (2 had insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 13 had non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and 12 had impaired glucose tolerance). Compared with the control subjects, women with previous GDM had relatively impaired insulin secretion (decreased insulinogenic index and delayed peak insulin response) at all time points investigated; this was also found when only nonobese glucose-tolerant women were examined. Low insulin secretion during pregnancy together with a high fasting plasma glucose level at the diagnostic OGTT in pregnancy and hyperglycemia during the postpartum OGTT were predictive for subsequent development of overt diabetes (logistic regression analysis). CONCLUSIONS: Women who develop GDM have a relative insulin secretion deficiency, the severity of which is predictive for later development of diabetes. Furthermore, our data indicate that their relatively reduced beta-cell function may be a significant pathogenic factor in relation to the high incidence of subsequent diabetes in women with GDM. This could be important in the design of follow-up programs for women with previous GDM.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Teenage mothers -- a high-risk group for new unintended pregnancies.

INTRODUCTION: One of the targets of national health programs is to prevent unintended pregnancies, especially among teenagers. It is well established that these often lead to abortion. Preventive programs aimed at decreasing abortion rates should identify target groups at risk for unintended pregnancies. PURPOSE: This study was conducted to determine whether young mothers under 20 years of age constitute a group at risk for new unintended pregnancies. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study comprising teenagers giving birth to their first child from 1996 to 2000 was performed at Orebro University Hospital, Sweden. Data were collected from antenatal and medical records with particular regard to compliance with the postpartum visit and to whether a contraceptive method was prescribed. Information concerning repeat pregnancies during the 12 months after delivery was obtained. RESULTS: A total of 250 deliveries were recorded; 70% of the mothers attended the postpartum visit, and 71% received contraceptive prescriptions. At the 12-month follow-up, 56 (25%) had a new pregnancy, and of those, 20 (36%) had a legal abortion, making the abortion rate fivefold higher than expected in this age group. CONCLUSION: This study shows that teenagers giving birth constitute a high-risk group for future unintended pregnancies and legal abortion.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Breast-feeding education and support: association with the decision to breast-feed.

CONTEXT: Rates of breast-feeding in the United States are well below the Healthy People 2000 objective of 75% and do not meet recent American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines. OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with the initiation and duration of breast-feeding in managed care enrollees who had had a normal vaginal delivery. DESIGN: Telephone survey of 5213 new mothers (4 to 6 months postpartum) enrolled in commercial managed care plans (response rate 72%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Starting breast-feeding (ever vs never) and duration of breast-feeding (< or = 6 weeks vs > 6 weeks). ANALYSIS: Logistic regression models controlling for sociodemographic variables. Given the prevalence of the outcome, odds ratios were converted to relative risks (RRs). RESULTS: Seventy-five percent of respondents reported ever breast-feeding, and of those women, 75% reported breast-feeding for more than 6 weeks. In adjusted multivariate analyses, breast-feeding was affected by education, employment, and marital status. Women who were more likely to breast-feed were those who attended childbirth classes (RR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.11 to 1.20), those who received prenatal breast-feeding advice (RR, 1.24; CI, 1.19 to 1.27), and those who received postpartum breast-feeding assistance (RR, 1.31; CI, 1.15 to 1.34). Breast-feeding for more than 6 weeks postpartum was associated with education, employment status, and the adequacy of postpartum information. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that health plans and employees may promote breast-feeding by providing breast-feeding education and support.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Change in smoking prevalence among pregnant women 1982-93.

Maternal smoking is the most prevalent risk factor for low birthweight in Canada. This study compared the prevalence of maternal smoking before and during pregnancy from 1983 to 1992. Population-based surveys of 3,296 women during six months in 1983 and 7,940 women during 12 months in 1992 were conducted in Ottawa-Carleton using a self-administered questionnaire completed in the hospital postpartum period. The proportion of women smoking after the first trimester of pregnancy decreased from 28.5% in 1983 to 18.7% in 1992. This difference was due mainly to a reduction in the proportion of women who smoked before pregnancy (37.4% to 26.4%). Another factor was that more women stopped smoking early in pregnancy (23.9% to 29.2%). Gradients in levels of smoking by age, education, marital status and poverty level still exist; however, this is true for the general population. Programs to decrease smoking in pregnancy should continue to focus on reducing smoking among women in general and among those in the preconception and early stages of pregnancy in particular.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Treatment of maternal mood disorder and infant behaviour disturbance in an Australian private mothercraft unit: a follow-up study.

Australia has a system of residential parentcraft services which offer brief admissions to mothers experiencing difficulties with infant care and postnatal mood disturbance. Most of these are state-funded public access services. In 1996 a comparable but differentiated service was opened in the private sector. Masada Private Hospital Mother Baby Unit accommodates five mother-infant pairs who are admitted to a five-night structured residential program. Care is provided by a multidisciplinary team comprising a paediatrician, general practitioner, clinical psychologist and specialist nurses. Complex maternal mood disorders as measured on standardised psychometric instruments include depression, anxiety and severe occupational fatigue. Their babies are unsettled, cry for prolonged periods, wake frequently at night and do not sleep well during the day. Many have feeding difficulties. The treatment program comprises both individualised training in infant care and settling strategies and psycho-educational groups offered in a supportive non-judgemental setting. One month post-discharge maternal mood is significantly improved and infant behaviour more manageable compared with functioning on admission.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Effect of postdischarge surveillance on rates of infectious complications after cesarean section.

Decreases in length of stay for surgical procedures and increased outpatient surgery affect accuracy of surgical wound infection rates. To assess accuracy of rates for infectious complications after delivery by cesarean section, we implemented postdischarge surveillance at our hospital (4800 annual deliveries). Physician questionnaires were used. Response rate was greater than 90%. During the 5 months before postdischarge surveillance the overall infection rate was 1.6%; afterward the rate increased to 6.3% (p = 0.0003). Approximately 59% of infectious complications would have gone undetected with only inpatient surveillance. We conclude that postdischarge surveillance is necessary for an accurate determination of rates of infectious complications. The need among this population reflects relatively short postpartum hospitalization and emphasis on outpatient management of postoperative complications.

Aftercare↗
PubMed1992

The reduction of black infant mortality: an eighteen month evaluation of three Tennessee Black Health Care Task Forces' demonstration projects.

The problem of low birth weight has emerged as the single most important cause of infant death or subsequent handicaps in infancy and childhood. Although low birth weight babies (below 5.5 pounds) represent a small percentage of all babies born, well over half of all infant deaths occur among this group. The problem is even more serious for tiny infants. The relationship between infant mortality/morbidity and low birth weight has been known for many years and despite dramatic overall changes and medical advances, the incidence of low birth weight among high-risk populations continues to be a perennial problem. Efforts have been made nationally to develop programs that identify the conditions which increase the risk of having a low birth weight infant; programs that seek to reduce the risk of low birth weight; and research on new approaches to prevent premature labor as well as promoting the normal growth and development of a fetus. Since 1987, the Black Health Care Task Force, established by the Tennessee Department of Health and Environment has funded three infant mortality reduction pilot projects (Alton Park/Dodson Avenue Health Care in Hamilton County, Memphis Health Center and, Memphis-Shelby County Health Department) that operated in the two Tennessee counties where the Black infant mortality rates were extremely high. The projects goals were (1) to improve birth weight and survival rates of black infants born to indigent and Medicaid women; (2) to reduce maternal morbidity among indigent and Medicaid women; (3) to enhance the participation of indigent and Medicaid maternity clients in the appropriate and timely prenatal intrapartum and postpartum services; (4) to reduce the incidence of unplanned pregnancies among adolescents; and (5) to increase the utilization of family planning services by indigent and Medicaid women. Data will be reported and analyzed to assess whether or not the projects had a positive effect on birth outcome and a subsequent reduction in infant mortality. The data for this analysis is based on enrollment data provided by the projects, and linked birth and infant death certificates for project and nonproject comparisons, as retrieved from the Department of Health and Environment's Vital Records.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Preventing adverse sequelae of bacterial vaginosis: a public health program and research agenda.

BACKGROUND: The cause of bacterial vaginosis remains poorly understood. Recent evidence strengthens the association between bacterial vaginosis and serious medical complications. GOAL: To review the evidence linking bacterial vaginosis with adverse pregnancy outcomes, complications after gynecologic procedures, and HIV infection, and to identify prevention strategies. METHODS: In March 1999, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention organized a conference to accomplish this goal. RESULTS: Better understanding is needed concerning the etiology, epidemiology, and natural history of bacterial vaginosis. More efficacious treatment of bacterial vaginosis and strategies to reduce maternal complications associated with bacterial vaginosis, such as premature rupture of the fetal membranes, chorioamnionitis, premature labor and delivery, postdelivery endometritis, and postpartum infant complications should be developed. Recent evidence shows that screening and treatment of bacterial vaginosis before abortion reduces postabortion pelvic inflammatory disease, and that anaerobic coverage during hysterectomy reduces postoperative complications. Better understanding concerning the relation of bacterial vaginosis to acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection are needed as well as possible prevention strategies. CONCLUSIONS: A national prevention effort should be guided by the results of research that addresses current knowledge gaps.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed2001

Analysis of casein using two-dimensional electrophoresis, western blot, and computer imaging.

Casein from milk of 20 mothers, 8 weeks postpartum, was analyzed using 2-dimensional electrophoresis. The casein micelle under 2-D denaturing conditions gives approximately 15 major spots. Beta-Casein, kappa-casein, para-kappa-casein, and casein peptides can be tentatively identified by molecular size, isoelectric point, and spot shape characteristics. All spots are not present in all samples. Two spots thought to represent different phosphorylated forms of beta-casein were selected for area and density measurements by means of the NIH-Image program. The larger area at approximately 26 kDa, isoelectric point 5.3, consisted of 1 to 3 closely linked spots, perhaps reflecting phenotype. The smaller spot 24kDa, isoelectric point 5.4, was always a single unit. Visual scanning of gels suggests a wide range of casein concentration. Computer comparison will allow a statistical analysis.

Blotting, Western↗