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PubMed2000

Framing interethnic ideology: effects of multicultural and color-blind perspectives on judgments of groups and individuals.

In 3 experiments, White American college students received a message advocating either a color-blind or a multicultural ideological approach to improving interethnic relations and then made judgments about various ethnic groups and individuals. Relative to a color-blind perspective, the multicultural perspective led to stronger stereotypes, greater accuracy in these stereotypes, and greater use of category information in judgments of individuals. This increase in between-category differentiation occurred both for attributes that favored the in-group and for attributes that favored the out-group and was also paired in some cases with greater overall positivity toward the out-group. The findings lead us to question the implicit assumption driving the majority of social psychological efforts at prejudice reduction: that the categorization process leads to prejudice, and that the relevance of social categories must therefore be de-emphasized.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Judgments of proportions.

This study investigated the processes that underlie estimates of relative frequency. Ss performed 4 tasks using the same stimuli (squares containing black and white dots); they judged "percentages" of white dots, "percentages" of black dots, "ratios" of black dots to white dots, and "differences" between the number of black and white dots. Results were consistent with the theory that Ss used the instructed operations with the same scale values in all tasks. Despite the use of the correct operation, Ss consistently overestimated small proportions and underestimated large proportions. Variations in the distributions of actual proportions affected the extent to which Ss overestimated small proportions and underestimated large proportions in the direction predicted by range-frequency theory. Results suggest that proportion judgments, and by analogy probability judgments, should not be taken at face value.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Perceptual and cognitive factors governing performance in comparative arrival-time judgments.

Four experiments were conducted to investigate factors affecting relative arrival-time judgments in the transverse plane. Across experiments, results indicated an overreliance on relative distance information. The levels of relative velocity and distance used in the arrival-time task were proved discriminable, and performance in both relative velocity and distance judgments predicted performance in the relative arrival-time task. Despite the distance bias, an attempt to integrate relative velocity and distance information was also evidenced. The distance bias appears to have resulted from resource limitations on the concurrent processing of relative velocity and distance information, causing relative velocity information to become resource limited. The final experiment assessed the stability of performance in each of the tasks over time and provided evidence of individual differences in the ability to coordinate information from multiple sources.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

The impact of visual exploration of judgments of whether a gap is crossable.

When observers look down into a gap in the ground plane, their judgments of the widest gap they can step across (gapmax) decrease as gap depth increases (Y. Jiang & L. S. Mark, 1994). This study investigated the possibility that Jiang and Mark's viewing conditions did not afford observers a sufficient opportunity to perform exploratory movements needed to detect information about gap width. Experiment 1 showed that the gap depth by gaze interaction disappeared only when restrictions were not imposed on observers' exploratory activities (eye, head, and body movements). Experiment 2 showed that observers tended to see the vertical surface as slanted away from them, which made the bottom of the surface appear farther away from them than the top. Only when observers were able to view the gap binocularly under conditions that did not restrict exploratory activity did their slant perception improve and their gapmax judgments no longer covary with gap depth. The data indicate that the exploratory movements of prospective actors are essential for the pickup of information about their action capabilities.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Contributions of specific cell information to judgments of interevent contingency.

College students considered the possible effect of an experimental drug on a skin rash. The information came from a 2 x 2 contingency table involving receipt or nonreceipt of the drug and improvement or nonimprovement of the rash: Cell A = receipt-improvement; Cell B = receipt-nonimprovement; Cell C = nonreceipt-improvement; Cell D = nonreceipt-nonimprovement. Without numerical information. Ss judged cells to be ordered A greater than B greater than C greater than D. The same order held when the contribution of each cell was derived from the contingency judgments of other subjects given numerical information. No such consistency was seen when one group of Ss made both judgments: whether individual Ss equally or unequally assessed the importance of the four cells, their contingency estimates showed cell use to be ordered A greater than B greater than C greater than D. These findings may result from strong biases that Ss harbor in processing contingency information.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Temporal judgments and contextual change.

Three experiments investigated effects of environmental context on temporal memory judgments. An equal number of items occurred within each of two equal durations (D1 and D2). Subjects subsequently were asked to judge the length of a given duration in comparison with the other, then to discriminate the correct list and serial position for each recognized item on a test. If environmental context was unchanged, D1 was remembered as being longer than D2; if the context was disrupted during the interval separating D1 and D2, this effect was reduced; and if the context prevailing during D2 also was changed, the effect was eliminated. List discrimination was improved only if the context was changed. Serial-position judgment was not affected by either manipulation. Changes in process context--the internal context produced by the performance of specific cognitive processes--lengthened remembered duration, but the effect did not simply add on to the effects of environmental context. Results are discussed in terms of a contextual-change hypothesis.

Attention↗
PubMed2000

Recognition memory and familiarity judgments in severe amnesia: no evidence for a contribution of repetition priming.

The amnesic patient E.P. has demonstrated normal levels of repetition priming and at-chance recognition performance (S. B. Hamann & L. R. Squire, 1997), suggesting that the sense of familiarity used to make a recognition memory judgment is not based on the same mechanism responsible for repetition priming. However, the recognition tests previously used may have discouraged the use of familiarity and encouraged reliance on episodic memory. This issue was addressed in 5 experiments with E.P., 3 other amnesic patients with hippocampal damage, and 8 healthy controls. In Experiments 1-3, which were designed to discourage the use of episodic memory, the amnesic patients were impaired and E.P. performed at chance. In Experiments 4 and 5A, a stem-completion priming task was combined with a recognition memory task on each trial. E.P.'s priming was intact, yet his recognition memory performance was at chance. This suggests that although recognition memory judgments may be made on the basis of familiarity, repetition priming is not the source of this feeling of familiarity.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

Judgments of origin and generation effects: comparisons between young and elderly adults.

In 2 experiments, young and elderly adults were required to both read words, and generate words by completing word fragments. Subjects were then required to recognize those words that had been presented earlier; for those words that they recognized they judged whether the items had initially been presented in read or generate form. Generation effects (better memory for words that were generated as compared with words that were read) of similar magnitude were observed for both young and older adults. The older adults were consistently less accurate than the younger adults in their judgments of origin. In addition, the young adults exhibited a bias to respond "read" for these judgments. In contrast, the older adults either exhibited a neutral response bias or were biased to respond "generate." Age-related differences in the encoding or retrieval of information about cognitive operations do not provide a good account of the results. Alternative accounts are described.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

A perspective on judgment and choice: mapping bounded rationality.

Early studies of intuitive judgment and decision making conducted with the late Amos Tversky are reviewed in the context of two related concepts: an analysis of accessibility, the ease with which thoughts come to mind; a distinction between effortless intuition and deliberate reasoning. Intuitive thoughts, like percepts, are highly accessible. Determinants and consequences of accessibility help explain the central results of prospect theory, framing effects, the heuristic process of attribute substitution, and the characteristic biases that result from the substitution of nonextensional for extensional attributes. Variations in the accessibility of rules explain the occasional corrections of intuitive judgments. The study of biases is compatible with a view of intuitive thinking and decision making as generally skilled and successful.

Cognition↗
PubMed1995

Nonlinear models of clinical judgment: Meehl's data revisited.

Previous attempts to detect nonlinearity in clinical judgments have not succeeded because of a lack of good nonlinear models. Much research in this area was based on data collected by Paul Meehl, which include clinicians' judgments of mental disorder on the basis of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory profiles. In this article, Meehl's data are reanalyzed using several versions of the scatter model in which nonlinearity is represented by the within profile scatter(s) of the cues. The author finds that these versions give a better fit to the data than the linear model. He also finds systematic patterns of nonlinearity that lend themselves to psychological interpretation.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

Comparison processes in social judgment: mechanisms and consequences.

This article proposes an informational perspective on comparison consequences in social judgment. It is argued that to understand the variable consequences of comparison, one has to examine what target knowledge is activated during the comparison process. These informational underpinnings are conceptualized in a selective accessibility model that distinguishes 2 fundamental comparison processes. Similarity testing selectively makes accessible knowledge indicating target-standard similarity, whereas dissimilarity testing selectively makes accessible knowledge indicating target-standard dissimilarity. These respective subsets of target knowledge build the basis for subsequent target evaluations, so that similarity testing typically leads to assimilation whereas dissimilarity testing typically leads to contrast. The model is proposed as a unifying conceptual framework that integrates diverse findings on comparison consequences in social judgment.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2005

Specific effects of an amnesic drug: effect of lorazepam on study time allocation and on judgment of learning.

We investigated the effects of lorazepam, a benzodiazepine, on the allocation of study time, memory, and judgment of learning, in a cognitive task where the repetition of word presentation was manipulated. The aim was to assess whether lorazepam would affect the learning processes and/or whether the participants would be aware of the amnesic difficulty. A total of 30 healthy volunteers participated in the study, 15 of whom received a capsule containing the lorazepam drug (0.038 mg/kg) and 15 a placebo capsule. First, the accuracy of delayed judgments of learning (JOL) was measured in both groups. For the JOL ratings, results showed that all the participants benefited from word repetition. Although the overall performance was lower in the lorazepam than in the placebo group, the accuracy of the JOL ratings was preserved by the drug. Second, all the participants benefited from the repetition of learning, although the performances of the lorazepam-treated subjects remained lower than those of the placebo participants. The repetition of learning had an effect on JOL in both groups. Finally, the time spent learning each (allocation study time) pair of words was measured. For the placebo group, results revealed that study time decreased significantly with the frequency of presentation. For the lorazepam group, no effect of presentation frequency was found. Overall, our findings suggest that the lorazepam drug has a differential effect on the monitoring and the control processes involved in a learning task. The implications of these findings are discussed within the theoretical framework of metacognition.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Low-frequency response of hearing aids and judgments of aided speech quality.

Connected discourse was processed by a master hearing aid via two channels that were independently adjusted to seven discrete settings of low-cutoff frequency. Signals were tape-recorded and played back in a paired-comparison format to 12 listeners with gradually sloping sensorineural hearing loss, who selected the speech channel preferred for its sound quality. Four experimental trials were administered, each of which consisted of 21 randomized paired conditions. Results across the four trials revealed high intersubject and intrasubject response agreement. Listeners indicated strong and systematic preferences for speech reproduced by circuitry having progressively extended low-frequency emphasis. Findings confirm earlier experimental observations that hearing-impaired listeners are capable of making repeatable paired-comparison preference judgments of the quality of hearing-aid processed speech. Additionally, results demonstrate definitively that low-cutoff frequency is sufficiently robust to be regarded as the probable source of a potent perceptual basis for such judgments. The clinical implication is that hearing-impaired listeners can be expected to exhibit strong preferences for the quality of speech reproduced by hearing aids having relatively extended low-frequency response.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1990

Validity and reliability of judgments of authentic and simulated stuttering.

This exploratory study was undertaken to determine if the concept has merit that the information by which a stutterer identifies stuttering at time of occurrence is qualitatively different from that by which listeners identify stuttering. If it is not the same, then perceptually equivalent stuttered and nonstuttered speech disruptions should be experienced by the stutterer as qualitatively different, even though recordings of these disruptions would sound alike to listeners. To test this hypothesis a criterion was developed to validate a stutterer's ability to accurately identify her stuttering at time of occurrence. She simulated her own stuttering and then judged acoustical recordings of authentic and simulated samples at five intervals following occurrence. Listener judgments were also obtained. Listeners were able to distinguish simulated and authentic samples with 57% accuracy. The stutterer's judgments were never inaccurate at time of occurrence of a speech disruption, but her accuracy decreased rapidly following occurrence, plateauing at 54%. These results supported the concepts that the production of stuttered and nonstuttered speech disruptions are experienced as being qualitatively different, that the difference is involuntary blockage, that only stutterers can validly recognize this difference, and only when it occurs, and that stuttering is a speaker/production rather than a listener/perceptual disorder.

Female↗
PubMed1988

Judgments and measurements of the loudness of tinnitus before and after masking.

This study explored the relation between changes reported in the perception of the loudness of tinnitus after noise exposure and changes measured in matches to the loudness of tinnitus after noise exposure. Preexposure assessment of the loudness of tinnitus was followed by monaural exposure to wide-band Gaussian noise (for a 5-min period), after which a pulsed, 200-ms tone was presented either ipsilateral or contralateral to the exposed ear. Following each noise exposure, the subject (a) judged the change in the pre- and postexposure tinnitus strength and (b) compared the loudness of the postexposure tinnitus to that of the pure tone. By combining data across noise exposures, a measure of the postexposure tinnitus magnitude was computed. For three of six subjects, the pre- and postexposure magnitude did not differ significantly even though the judgments indicated that the pre- and postexposure loudness of the tinnitus had changed. These data raise the possibility that some loudness judgments reflect variability in the tinnitus rather than the effect of the noise on the tinnitus.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1992

Stuttering and speech naturalness: audio and audiovisual judgments.

Unsophisticated raters, using 9-point interval scales, judged speech naturalness and stuttering severity of recorded stutterer and nonstutterer speech samples. Raters judged separately the audio-only and audiovisual presentations of each sample. For speech naturalness judgments of stutterer samples, raters invariably judged the audiovisual presentation more unnatural than the audio presentation of the same sample; but for the nonstutterer samples, there was no difference between audio and audiovisual naturalness ratings. Stuttering severity ratings did not differ significantly between audio and audiovisual presentations of the same samples. Rater reliability, interrater agreement, and intrarater agreement for speech naturalness judgments were assessed.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Effect of color on judgments of food aroma and flavour intensity in young and elderly adults.

The hypothesis was tested that subjects' judgments of food aroma and flavour strength will be increasingly influenced by food color as the chemosensory differences between foods become less apparent. Elderly (n = 24) and young (n = 22) adults were presented with pairs of food samples and instructed to indicate which sample had the more intense aroma or flavor. The chemosensory discriminations varied in difficulty, and the color of the food pairs was also manipulated so that either they were similarly colored, or the color strength differed so that it was either positively or inversely correlated with flavour strength. Overall, the results failed to support the hypothesis that color alters the perceived intensity of the food aroma or flavor. There was a weak trend toward a greater number of errors among sample pairs that varied in color, especially when color strength was inversely related to flavor strength. Elderly and young adult groups did not differ in chemosensory ability or in their responses to food color differences, although the elderly adults were significantly more certain of the accuracy of their chemosensory judgments.

Adult↗