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At least 937 records · Page 52Linked to original sources
PubMed2003

Neuronal correlates of goal-based motor selection in the prefrontal cortex.

Choosing an action that leads to a desired goal requires an understanding of the linkages between actions and their outcomes. We investigated neural mechanisms of such goal-based action selection. We trained monkeys on a task in which the relation between visual cues, action types, and reward conditions changed regularly, such that the monkeys selected their actions based on anticipated reward conditions. A significant number of neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex were activated, after cue presentation and before motor execution, only by particular action-reward combinations. This prefrontal activity is likely to underlie goal-based action selection.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2000

Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: an integrative review.

The purpose of this review is to document the directions and recent progress in our understanding of the motivational dynamics of school achievement. Based on the accumulating research it is concluded that the quality of student learning as well as the will to continue learning depends closely on an interaction between the kinds of social and academic goals students bring to the classroom, the motivating properties of these goals and prevailing classroom reward structures. Implications for school reform that follow uniquely from a motivational and goal-theory perspective are also explored.

Educational Status↗
PubMed2006

Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and academic achievement.

Over the past 25 years, achievement goal theory has emerged as one of the most prominent theories of achievement motivation. This chapter uses an achievement goal framework to examine the influence of classroom and school environments on students' academic motivation and achievement. Considerable evidence suggests that elementary and secondary students show the most positive motivation and learning patterns when their school settings emphasize mastery, understanding, and improving skills and knowledge. Whereas school environments that are focused on demonstrating high ability and competing for grades can increase the academic performance of some students, research suggests that many young people experience diminished motivation under these conditions. The implications of achievement goal theory for examining the impact of school reform are discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed2004

Neural correlates of the automatic and goal-driven biases in orienting spatial attention.

How do stimuli in the environment interact with the goals of observers? We addressed this question by showing that the relevance of an abruptly appearing visual object (cue) changes how observers orient attention toward a subsequent object (target) and how this target is represented in the activity of neurons in the superior colliculus. Initially after the appearance of the cue, attention is driven to its locus. This capture of attention is followed by a second bias in orienting attention, where observers preferentially orient to new locations in the visual scene-an effect called inhibition of return. In the superior colliculus, these two automatic biases in orienting attention were associated with changes in neural activity linked to the appearance of the target-relatively stronger activity linked to the capture of attention and weaker activity linked to inhibition of return. This behavioral pattern changes when the cue predicts the upcoming location of the target-the benefit associated with the capture of attention is enhanced and inhibition of return is reduced. These goal-driven changes in behavior were associated with an increase in pretarget- and target-related activity. Taken together, the goals of observers modify stimulus-driven changes in neural activity with both signals represented in the salience maps of the superior colliculi.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2000

Effects of reversible inactivation of the primate mesencephalic reticular formation. I. Hypermetric goal-directed saccades.

Single-neuron recording and electrical microstimulation suggest three roles for the mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF) in oculomotor control: 1) saccade triggering, 2) computation of the horizontal component of saccade amplitude (a feed-forward function), and 3) feedback of an eye velocity signal from the paramedian zone of the pontine reticular formation (PPRF) to higher structures. These ideas were tested using reversible inactivation of the MRF with pressure microinjection of muscimol, a GABA(A) agonist, in four rhesus monkeys prepared for chronic single-neuron and eye movement recording. Reversible inactivation revealed two subregions of the MRF: ventral-caudal and rostral. The ventral-caudal region, which corresponds to the central MRF, the cMRF, or nucleus subcuneiformis, is the focus of this paper and is located lateral to the oculomotor nucleus and caudal to the posterior commissure (PC). Inactivation of the cMRF produced contraversive, upward saccade hypermetria. In three of eight injections, the velocity of hypermetric saccades was too fast for a given saccade amplitude, and saccade duration was shorter. The latency for initiation of most contraversive saccades was markedly reduced. Fixation was also destabilized with the development of macrosaccadic square-wave jerks that were directed toward a contraversive goal in the hypermetric direction. Spontaneous saccades collected in total darkness were also directed toward the same orbital goal, up and to the contraversive side. Three of eight muscimol injections were associated with a shift in the initial position of the eyes. A contralateral head tilt was also observed in 5 out of 8 caudal injections. All ventral-caudal injections with head tilt showed no evidence of vertical postsaccadic drift. This suggested that the observed changes in head movement and posture resulted from inactivation of the caudal MRF and not spread of the muscimol to the interstitial nucleus of Cajal (INC). Evidence of hypermetria strongly supports the idea that the ventral-caudal MRF participates in the feedback control of saccade accuracy. However, development of goal-directed eye movements, as well as a shift in the initial position following some of the cMRF injections, suggest that this region also contributes to the generation of an estimate of target or eye position coded in craniotopic coordinates. Last, the observed reduction in contraversive saccade latency and development of macrosaccadic square-wave jerks supports a role of the MRF in saccade triggering.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Goal-directed hand movements are not affected by the biased space representation in spatial neglect.

Patients with spatial neglect exhibit a severe shift of spontaneous explorative movements to the right side, indicating a bias of long-living representations of space. Whether or not goal-directed movements likewise are affected by this rightward bias has been controversially discussed throughout the last decade. Unfortunately, substantial differences regarding patient selection and data analysis prevented a direct comparison of these results. We thus studied pointing movements in a new sample of subjects covering all different patient groups previously investigated on this issue. We analyzed all the different measures of hand path curvature used so far and, in addition, suggest a new measure that avoids the disadvantages of the previously used parameters. Despite their severe bias for exploratory movements, we did not find systematic, direction-specific deviations of goal-directed hand movements that were specific for the patients with spatial neglect. The results strongly suggest that the disturbance of long-living spatial representations underlying the bias of exploratory behavior in patients with neglect does not influence the performance of goal-directed movements. The data support the view of a dual mode of space representation in the posterior parietal and the superior temporal cortex.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Basic principles of psychotherapy. I. Introduction, basic goals, and the therapeutic relationship.

This paper (Part I) outlines some fundamental principles of psychotherapy. The concept of "supportive" psychotherapy and the problems associated with those techniques are discussed, along with the advantage of learning basic principles of psychotherapy. The basic principles of psychotherapy are introduced in terms of basic goals. The techniques used in achieving the goal of an effective therapeutic relationship are discussed in detail. Other goals of creating an individualized patient model, making interventions, and monitoring countertransference are introduced but detailed discussion is left for Part II.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Expectations, goals, and perceived effectiveness of child health supervision: a study of mothers in a pediatric practice.

The purpose of the study was to assess parent expectations and goals in child health supervision and variability by socioeconomic status (SES), family size, social support, and pediatrician. Home interviews were conducted with mothers and their pediatricians were surveyed. Two hundred mothers with at least one child age 2-3 years who see one of five pediatricians in a staff model health maintenance organization were asked to participate. Mothers' and pediatricians' goals in the following seven areas of health supervision were assessed: biomedical, development, behavior, family functioning, safety education, and interpersonal and system interaction. Mothers stated physicians were their main source of parenting information. Assurance of physical health and normal development were more important than discussion of behavioral, family, or safety issues. Mothers of low SES were more likely to feel that physical aspects of health should be the focus and were less interested in psychosocial issues. Physicians stressed interpersonal, safety, and behavioral goals more than mothers. Individual physician responses did not predict the responses of mothers in their practice. Our data suggest either that mothers do not feel that psychosocial and safety issues are the highest priorities in health supervision or that physicians are not effectively reaching mothers on these issues.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Goal importance and students at risk of having language difficulties: an underexplored aspect of student motivation.

The purpose of this study was to compare the motivational determinants of students at risk of language difficulties (in reading and spelling) and students with high language skills. Teachers' evaluations in language and mathematics at the end of the academic year constituted the dependent variable. Motivational orientations were examined using the constructs that reflect the theory of planned behavior and goal importance. Participants were 202 elementary school students-22 at risk of language difficulties and 180 with high language skills-drawn from 30 elementary schools in northern Greece. The results indicated that the two groups differed significantly, with the at-risk students exhibiting significantly lower perceptions of goal importance, intention to achieve, belief strength, outcome evaluation, and normative beliefs, and eventually scoring lower in language and mathematics at the end of the academic year. A finer analysis of students' motivational orientations was conducted using covariance structural modeling (CSM) and EQS 5.7b. The planned behavior model with goal importance produced a comparative fit index (CFI) of 1.00 in language and mathematics for the at-risk group. The respective CFIs for the high language skills group were .97 and 1.00 in language and mathematics, respectively. Although model fit was excellent across samples, different weights and signs linking motivational orientations to achievement partly explained the observed differences in language and mathematics manifested in the two groups.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed1996

The theory of goal attainment in research and practice.

King's conceptual system may be used to build a world community of nurses who respect cultural differences and share the mutual goal of health in each nation. The concepts in this systems framework have been the basis for research and practice and for developing theories such as the theory of goal attainment. This theory includes a human process of interactions that lead to transactions and to goal attainment (outcomes). This process is useful in any nursing situation and in any culture. Knowledge of the concepts of the theory have been applied in practice in the United States, Canada, Sweden, and Japan. An example of implementing theory-based practice in a hospital is discussed.

Goals↗
PubMed1999

A normative analysis of home care goals.

Home- and community-based services (HCBS) can contribute to full social and economic participation in society by people with disabilities. Of 16 client-level and system-level HCBS goals, three are emphasized; targeting the neediest, individual choice, and strengthening informal systems. Projections are made of how selected goals would play out under two different resource conditions. Efforts to expand and strengthen HCBS involve trade-offs--for example, increasing access and comprehensiveness undermines affordability, increased targeting to the neediest means less access for those below the need threshold, and expanding client choice raises fears about trade-offs with quality and effectiveness. Targeting and choice seem to represent central and compatible goals for the design of an HCBS system. The combination minimizes trade-offs with affordability and enhances political feasibility.

Community Health Services↗
PubMed2005

Treatment goals during care of adult donors that can influence outcomes of heart transplantation.

Myocardial dysfunction during care of adult donors can result from injury occurring before hospital admission or during the progression of brain death. Few evidence-based data correlate specific hemodynamic goals during donor care with outcomes of heart transplantation, although many recommendations exist. Spontaneous reversal of early heart damage or correction of poor cardiac performance can yield outcomes equivalent to outcomes in recipients who had ideal donors. Hemodynamic goals developed in the operating room can be applied in intensive care to improve outcomes of transplantation. These goals include maintenance of mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mm Hg, central venous pressure less than 12 mm Hg, cardiac output greater than 3.8 L/min, cardiac index greater than 2.1, and systemic vascular resistance between 800 and 1200 dyne x sec x cm(-5). The ejection fraction and other echocardiographic data also provide helpful guidance when determining whether a heart is suitable for transplantation and during therapy. Titration of cardiovascular variables often requires invasive monitoring to ensure that cardiac preload, afterload, and contractility are optimal.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Validity of the Superiority and Goal Instability scales as measures of defects in the self.

A series of four canonical correlation analyses was conducted to compare the Superiority and Goal Instability scales both with personality pattern and clinical syndrome scales from the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) and with therapist ratings of personality traits and symptom patterns using 91 clients from a cross-section of outpatient and inpatient mental health agencies. The Superiority scale was related to a pattern of social gregariousness, interpersonal exploitation, and impulsivity and Goal Instability was related to a pattern of social withdrawal, depression, and lack of ambitions and goals. These results clarify the meaning of the two self-scales as well as providing preliminary data on self-pathology and character types.

Ego↗
PubMed1994

Establishing generic remediation goals for the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: critical issues.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were one of the first classes of compounds identified as carcinogens and are often chemicals of concern at hazardous waste sites. Remediation goals established by regulatory agencies for carcinogenic PAHs in soil are generally either risk based or based on the method detection limits. PAHs are products of incomplete combustion, are components of petroleum, and as such, are prevalent in the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Background concentrations are often above risk- or detection limit-based criteria, and therefore these remediation goals are of limited practical use as target criteria. In addition, the approaches used to establish target criteria do not account for several factors that may produce over- or underestimates of risk associated with the PAHs. Because of the frequency with which these compounds are detected, it is imperative that reasonably achievable and practical remediation goals be established. This paper examines the various factors that contribute to over- and underestimates of risks associated with PAHs and presents an approach for establishing cleanup criteria that takes into account health risks, background concentrations, and achievability.

Carcinogens, Environmental↗
PubMed2006

Developmental dynamics between mathematical performance, task motivation, and teachers' goals during the transition to primary school.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that children's learning motivation and interest in a particular subject play an important role in their school performance, particularly in mathematics. However, few cross-lagged longitudinal studies have been carried out to investigate the prospective relationships between academic achievement and task motivation. Moreover, the role that the classroom context plays in this development is largely unknown. AIMS: The aim of the study was to investigate the developmental dynamics of maths-related motivation and mathematical performance during children's transition to primary school. The role of teachers' pedagogical goals and classroom characteristics on this development was also investigated. SAMPLE: A total of 196 Finnish children were examined four times: (0) in October during their preschool year; (1) in October and (2) April during their first grade of primary school; and (3) in October during their second grade. METHOD: Children's mathematical performance was tested at each measurement point. Task motivation was examined at measurement points 2, 3, and 4 using the Task-value scale for children. First-grade teachers were interviewed in November about their pedagogical goals and classroom characteristics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that children's mathematical performance and related task motivation formed a cumulative developmental cycle: a high level of maths performance at the beginning of the first grade increased subsequent task motivation towards mathematics, which further predicted a high level of maths performance at the beginning of the second grade. The level of maths-related task motivation increased in those classrooms where the teachers emphasized motivation or self-concept development as their most important pedagogical goal.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Wanting to have vs. wanting to be: the effect of perceived instrumentality on goal orientation.

Two theories of motivation relevant to classroom learning result in conflicting recommendations for enhancing motivation and performance. The goal theory stresses only that stimulating an individual's natural curiosity will increase motivation. This theory relies on the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Future time perspective theory stresses the importance of the personal future for motivation and learning and the utility of what is learned for the future. A series of studies investigated the role of three types of perceived instrumentality of a present task for an individual's goal orientation. Eighty-one adults and 229 high school students participated in three studies. They had to think of three actions they were regularly involved in during their daily life (Studies 1 and 2), or three courses they took (Study 3), corresponding to the three types of instrumentality. Afterwards, they responded to a questionnaire that assessed goal orientation in those three actions. Results suggested that stressing the personal future consequences of tasks, even when these were extrinsic, enhanced task orientation and decreased performance orientation, both in daily life and in study contexts, as predicted by future time perspective theory.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Effects of posting self-set goals on collegiate football players' skill execution during practice and games.

The effects of self-set goals and public posting on athletic performance of 5 collegiate football players was studied. All players were linebackers on a National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Division II football team. The dependent variables were the percentage of correct occasions when the linebacker (a) positioned himself to cover a specified area on the field during a pass or from the line of scrimmage during a run; (b) moved to the correct position in response to the positioning of the offense; and (c) tackled and stopped the progress of the ball carrier. A multiple baseline design across behaviors showed an immediate increase in the practice performance of the players and a corresponding increase in game performance following introduction of the independent variable. This study extends research using public posting in sport by demonstrating the effects of player-determined goals and public posting of goal attainment.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Effects of public posting, goal setting, and oral feedback on the skills of female soccer players.

We evaluated the effects of public posting, goal setting, and oral feedback on the skills of 3 female high school soccer players during practice scrimmages. The dependent variables were the percentage of appropriate responses when the player (a) kept and maintained possession of the ball, (b) moved to an open position during a game restart (e.g., goal or corner kick), and (c) moved to an open position after passing the ball. We also assessed the extent to which changes in practice performances generalized to games. A social validity questionnaire was completed by both players and coaches to assess the acceptability of the intervention's goals, procedures, and outcomes. Results indicate that the intervention was effective in improving performances during practice scrimmages but produced limited generalization to game settings.

Adolescent↗