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PubMed2001

Measurement characteristics of 2 different self-monitoring tools used in a dietary intervention study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the measurement characteristics of 2 self-monitoring tools, a food diary and fat scan, used in the dietary intervention of the Women's Health Trial: Feasibility in Minority Populations study. DESIGN: Comparison of fat intake reported on the self-monitoring tools to a criterion measure of fat intake, specifically the mean of a food frequency questionnaire and a 4-day food record. The main outcome measures were differences in fat grams and correlations between each of the self-monitoring tools and the criterion measure. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Six-month postrandomization data from 313 women aged 50 to 79 years who participated in the intervention group of the Women's Health Trial: Feasibility in Minority Populations study. RESULTS: Both self-monitoring tools underestimated fat intake compared to the criterion measure, the food diary by 9 g and the fat scan by 6 g. The self-monitoring instruments were better than chance at detecting a low-fat dietary pattern, however, and did not differ from each other in their ability to do so. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: The self-monitoring tools were modestly precise as measures of fat intake, but neither was sufficiently accurate to be reliable as a sole assessment of dietary adherence. Dietetics professionals are encouraged to assess the measurement properties of self-monitoring tools to use them appropriately in supporting dietary changes.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Dietary habits of patients with coronary atherosclerosis: case-control study.

AIM: The aim of this study was to identify the dietary-related risk factors for coronary atherosclerosis among Hong Kong Chinese people. BACKGROUND: Prevalence and mortality figures for coronary atherosclerosis are increasing in Chinese communities, including those in Hong Kong. Changes in dietary patterns might explain the increased risk of coronary artery disease among the Hong Kong Chinese. METHOD: A total of 145 consecutive patients scheduled to have coronary angiogram in a regional hospital in Hong Kong completed a self-reported questionnaire on their dietary intake for 1 week. A case-control design was used, and the data were collected from December 2000 to February 2001. RESULTS: Consumption of more than 1120 g of fish [28 tael (Chinese weight unit, 1 tael equals approximately 42 g)] per week (OR = 0.07) and soybean (OR = 0.17) had a beneficial effect in preventing coronary atherosclerosis. In addition, an increased waist-hip ratio (OR = 4.81) and consumption of more than 28 teaspoons of fat per week (OR = 42.36) were identified by logistic regression as independent risk factors for coronary atherosclerosis. Moreover, people who smoked (OR = 1.72), had a lower educational level (OR = 0.51) or higher family income (OR = 1.92) were more vulnerable to coronary atherosclerosis. Patients confirmed as having coronary atherosclerosis were more likely than those with normal coronary vessels to rank deep fry, stir fry, and pan fry as their preferred cooking methods over steaming or boiling. CONCLUSION: The results provide nurses with information on which to develop appropriate health education programmes for patients and the general public in Hong Kong to promote cardiovascular health. Efforts should be directed particularly to promoting boiling and steaming as major cooking methods, rather than frying or deep frying, as protective actions against coronary atherosclerosis.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Urinary isothiocyanate excretion, brassica consumption, and gene polymorphisms among women living in Shanghai, China.

Alternative measures of Brassica vegetable consumption (e.g., cabbage) may clarify the association between Brassica and cancer risk. Brassica isothiocyanates (ITCs) are excreted in urine and may provide a sensitive and food-specific dietary biomarker. However, the persistence of ITCs in the body may be brief and dependent on the activity of several Phase II enzymes, raising questions about the relationship between a single ITC measure and habitual dietary patterns. This study investigates the association between urinary ITC excretion and habitual Brassica consumption, estimated by a food frequency questionnaire, among healthy Chinese women enrolled in the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study. Participants (n = 347) completed a validated food frequency questionnaire querying habitual dietary intake during the prior 5 years and provided a fasting first-morning urine specimen. Genetic deletion of glutathione S-transferases (GSTM1/GSTT1), and single nucleotide substitutions in GSTP1 (A313G) and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1: C609T), were identified from blood DNA. Urinary ITC excretion levels were marginally higher with the GSTT1-null or GSTP1-G/G genotypes (P = 0.07, P = 0.05, respectively). Mean habitual Brassica intake was 98.3 g/day, primarily as bok choy, and Brassica intake significantly increased across quartile categories of ITC levels. The association between habitual Brassica intake and urinary ITC levels was stronger among women with GSTT1-null or GSTP1-A/A genotypes, or NQO1 T-allele, and the interaction was statistically significant across GSTP1 genotype. In conclusion, a single urinary ITC measure, in conjunction with markers of Phase II enzyme activity, provides a complementary measure of habitual Brassica intake among Shanghai women.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

[Study on the dietary protein bioavailability by young men of Yi and Tibetan].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the dietary protein intakes and bioavailability of young male adults of Yi and Tibetan. METHODS: Two groups of subjects aged from 18 to 22y were respectively recruited from schools of Liangshan Yi autonomous region and Tibetan-Qiang autonomous region. Samples of diet, fecal and urine in the nitrogen balance study for each group of subjects were collected, and the nitrogen content was analyzed by semi-micro-Kjeldahl. RESULTS: Total protein intake, apparent absorption, true absorption, biological value, net protein utilization and nitrogen balance for the young man of Yi people were 71.55g/d, 73.19%, 79.79%, 47.58%, 38.17% and 0.71g/d. The corresponding figures for young Tibetan man were 94.33g/d, 86.69%, 91.43%, 48.07%, 44.00% and 3.16g/d. CONCLUSION: The dietary protein intake and bioavailability of young Tibetan man were better than those of Yi, but both Yi and Tibetan young men were able to keep positive N balance with their respective dietary pattern.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

LDL of Taiwanese vegetarians are less oxidizable than those of omnivores.

The vegetarians in Taiwan consume diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. To investigate whether this dietary pattern results in high susceptibility of LDL to oxidation, 109 long-term (8 +/- 5 y) male and female vegans and lactovegetarians (ages 31-45 y) from Taipei and females from Hualien and matched omnivores were recruited to have 24-h-recall dietary assessments and blood lipid analysis. Body mass index and blood pressure were significantly lower in all vegetarian groups than in the matched omnivore groups (P < 0.05). Vegetarians consumed less energy except in the males and less protein, fat and cholesterol (P < 0.05). The mean polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid (P/S) ratio of 2.4 in vegetarian diet was about two times that in omnivore diet (P < 0. 001). The concentrations of plasma total- and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) but not HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) were significantly lower (P < 0.001) and resulting HDL-C/LDL-C ratio was 38, 46 and 30% higher (P < 0.01) in Taipei female, male and Hualien female vegetarians, respectively, than in the matched omnivores. Plasma triglyceride concentration was significantly lower only in the Hualien women vegetarians (31%, P < 0.001) than in the matched omnivores. The lag time of conjugated diene formation in LDL oxidized in vitro induced by copper was longer in Taipei female (62%, P < 0.001), male (29%, P < 0.05) and Hualien female (38%, P < 0.01), and the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in LDL after 2-4 h of oxidation was 22-32% less (P < 0.005) in Taipei male and Hualien female vegetarians than the matched omnivores. Lag time of LDL oxidation was negatively related to LDL arachidonic (r = -0.55, P = 0.0003) and eicosapentaenoic (r = -0.47, P = 0.003) acid contents. LDL-TBARS production was negatively related to LDL linoleic acid content (r = -0.36, P = 0.023), but positively related to LDL arachidonic (r = 0.56, P = 0.0002) and eicosapentaenoic (r = 0.45, P = 0.004) acids. No significant differences were found in dietary vitamins C and E intakes and plasma LDL alpha-tocopherol concentrations between vegetarians and omnivores. Our results suggest that vegetarian diets decrease the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation despite their higher dietary P/S ratio.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Influence of the intake of fortified breakfast cereals on dietary habits and nutritional status of Spanish schoolchildren.

A study was performed on the breakfast habits of 200 schoolchildren between 9 and 13 years of age. The subjects were classified into two groups: group C, children who consumed fortified breakfast cereals (65 boys and 35 girls), and group NC, children who did not (64 boys and 36 girls). The different dietary habits and the nutritional status of the two groups were analyzed. Haematological, biochemical, anthropometric, and dietary data were collected, the latter involving a 5-day food record. The children of the C group were found not only to have a more complete and nutritive breakfast, but also showed better dietary patterns for the rest of the day. Their lipid intake (% kJ) was lower and the carbohydrate intake (g/d and % kJ) higher than in the NC children. The intakes of thiamine, pyridoxine, folates, and beta-carotenes were also higher in group C. Better dietary habits were reflected in higher blood levels of some important compounds. Group C children had higher retinol, serum folate, and riboflavin levels than NC children. The percentage of children with hypercholesterolaemia (serum cholesterol > 4.5 mmol/l) was higher amongst those of the NC group: 37% as compared with 18% of the C children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

[A socio-medical study of adult diseases related to the life style of Chinese in Japan].

This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between life style factors and adult disease for Chinese living in Japan. The mortalities of major cancers and other major diseases of Chinese in Japan were compared with those of Japanese by calculating Standardized Mortality Ratios (SMR) for the Chinese using death rates in the Japanese population the standard. The life style data on smoking, drinking and dietary habits for Chinese in Japan were collected by self-administered questionnaire surveys, and age-adjusted proportions were calculated with the truncated world population as the standard. Then the corrected indexes on life style for Chinese in Japan were compared with those of Japanese. The results are summarized as follows: 1. The mortality rates of heart disease, diabetes mellitus, hypertensive disease, liver cirrhosis, rectum cancer, liver cancer (both sexes), lung cancer (females), breast cancer and cerebrovascular disease (females) for Chinese in Japan were higher than those for Japanese, but the rates of stomach cancer, pancreas cancer (both sexes), uterus cancer (females) and cerebrovascular disease (males) were lower than those for Japanese. 2. The prevalence of current smokers for Chinese males in Japan was lower than that of Japanese, and that of females was higher than that of Japanese. The prevalence of non-smokers for Chinese males was higher than that of Japanese, and that of females was lower than that of Japanese. 3. Although the prevalence of regular drinkers for Chinese of both sexes in Japan were lower than that of Japanese, the prevalence of heavy drinkers who drank over 80 ml of ethanol every day for Chinese males was higher than that of Japanese males. 4. Significant differences were not found in the prevalences of frequent consumers of meat, milk, eggs, fish, other vegetables and food using oil between cooks and non-cooks of Chinese of both sexes in Japan. 5. The age-adjusted prevalences of frequent meat and milk consumers for Chinese in Japan were higher than those of Japanese in both sexes, but those of frequent pickled vegetable and MISO soup consumers were lower than those of Japanese. The dietary pattern of Chinese in Japan was different from that of Japanese with intakes of much fat and less salt. 6. It is assumed that the mortalities due to adult disease for Chinese in Japan are related to their heavy drinking and to their dietary habits.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Nutrient intakes, nutritional patterns and the risk of liver cirrhosis: an explorative case-control study.

Several experimental studies have suggested that specific nutrients might play a role on the risk of liver damage. Nevertheless, few epidemiological studies have evaluated the role of diet on the risk of symptomatic liver cirrhosis, giving contradictory results. To evaluate the role of the intake of nutritional factors and dietary patterns on the risk of symptomatic liver cirrhosis and to examine their combined action with alcohol consumption we used data from the Italian Study on Liver Cirrhosis Determinants project. From 1994 to 1998 all the consecutive cirrhotic inpatients admitted to 19 Italian collaborative hospitals for signs of liver decompensation in whom the diagnosis of liver cirrhosis was made for the first time (259 cases) and one or two gender, age and area of residence matched individuals (416 controls) were recruited. Data on lifetime alcohol intake, usual consumption of 191 food items and on markers of hepatitis B and C viral infection were collected. The analysis of principal components identified a nutritional pattern positively correlated with vegetable and fruit intakes and negatively with animal and no-fruit sugar products. With respect to abstainers, relative risks in consumers of use < or = 25 and > or = 51 g/day of alcohol increased from 0.4 [95% confidence interval 0.0, 5.9] to 9.3 [1.3, 69.0] and from 2.1 [1.1, 4.2] to 18.1 [2.8, 118.3] for the lowest and the highest value of this nutritional pattern, respectively. Diet might therefore modulate the damaging effect of alcohol on the liver.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Breakfast: a review of associations with measures of dietary intake, physiology and biochemistry.

The present paper reviews the literature on breakfast to consider reported association between breakfast and nutritional, physiological and biochemical variables. The contribution of breakfast to achieving nutrition targets for fat, carbohydrate and dietary fibre intakes is also examined as are the potential effects of fortified breakfast cereals on intakes of micronutrients and nutritional status. Breakfast consumption, particularly if the meal includes a breakfast cereal, is associated with lower intakes of fat and higher intakes of carbohydrate, dietary fibre and certain micronutrients. These findings may be relevant to population groups which could be at risk from low intakes of certain micronutrients, but further clarification of benefit is needed from studies of nutritional status. Associations between breakfast consumption and lower cholesterol levels have been reported, while lower body weights have been seen amongst breakfast eaters. It is concluded that breakfast consumption is a marker for an appropriate dietary pattern in terms of both macro- and micronutrients, particularly if breakfast cereals are included in the meal.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Diet, living conditions and nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Tunisia--a case-control study.

We conducted a case-control study of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) in Tunisia, on diet, dietary patterns and life style, the characteristics of which had been defined by an anthropological study. Eighty incident cases, diagnosed in Tunisia between November 1986 and November 1987, were each matched for sex, age and place of residence to 2 controls. The subjects were asked for dietary data referring to the year preceding the diagnosis of NPC and, with help of their families, during childhood and after weaning. After adjustment for an empirical living conditions score, the following food items were found to be associated with an increased risk for NPC: preserved spiced meat (quaddid), basic stewing preparation (mixture of red and black pepper, garlic, oil, caraway and coriander), and harissa (red pepper, olive oil, garlic, caraway, salt) taken with bread as a snack during childhood and youth. Moreover, subjects who had been directly weaned from mother's milk on to an adult diet were found to be at higher risk for NPC.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Socio-economic and behavioural factors are predictors of food use in the National Food Stamp Program Survey.

The unhealthy dietary patterns in the USA especially among low-income households demand complex strategies for health promotion. The present paper analysed the proximate determinants of 7 d food use by 919 participants in the National Food Stamp Program Survey conducted in 1996. The households' consumption of dietary energy, carbohydrate, protein, fibre, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, Ca, Fe, beta-carotene and vitamin C were explained by background, socio-economic and behavioural factors. Certain methodological issues arising in modelling food use data were addressed. The results showed that the subjects' knowledge of the US Department of Agriculture food pyramid, reading nutrition labels, adopting a low-fat diet, selecting fruits and vegetables, saving money at grocery stores and frequency of shopping trips were often significantly associated (P<0.05) with the densities of nutrient use. The results identified certain aspects of nutrition education programmes that deserve greater emphasis for improving diet quality. The model for energy intake indicated that disbursing half the food stamp benefits on a 2-week basis and better shopping practices can enhance food availability.

Ascorbic Acid↗
PubMed2003

Isoflavonoid and lignan phytoestrogens as dietary biomarkers.

Isoflavones and lignans are biologically active plant-food constituents that have potential chemopreventive properties. Quantitation of isoflavones and lignans in humans is necessary to establish the benefits and risks of exposure to these compounds in populations and to determine which components of a mixed diet contribute to the exposure. Isoflavones and lignans are metabolized by colonic bacteria to more biologically active metabolites; thus both the parent compounds and the metabolites are measured routinely. Isoflavonoids (genistein, daidzein, dihydrodaidzein, O-desmethylangolensin and equol) and lignans (enterolactone, enterodiol, matairesinol and secoisolariciresinol) can be quantified in various body fluids. Typically, high concentrations of isoflavonoids in urine and serum are associated with soy consumption, and high concentrations of lignans are associated primarily with intake of whole grains and other fiber-containing plant foods. Controlled feeding studies and nutritional epidemiologic studies demonstrate a linear dose response between dietary intake and urinary excretion of isoflavones. Lignan excretion is associated positively with dietary fiber intake as well as with diets that are on average higher in fiber and carbohydrate and lower in fat; thus lignans have also been proposed as a marker of healthier dietary patterns. The complex interactions between the colonic environment and the external and internal factors that modulate it contribute to significant variation in serum and urinary phytoestrogen levels among individuals. Understanding these sources of variation is important to be able to use these measures effectively as dietary biomarkers.

Biomarkers↗
PubMed1985

Nutritional status of gastroenterology outpatients: comparison of inflammatory bowel disease with functional disorders.

Dietary intakes of two groups of gastrointestinal patients, one group with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)--Crohn's disease or chronic ulcerative colitis--and the other with functional disorders (FD)--irritable bowel syndrome, nonulcer dyspepsia, or gastroesophageal reflux disease, were assessed by means of 48-hour recalls. The relationships between dietary intake and anthropometric and biochemical measurements were examined. The IBD group had lower mean serum albumin and hemoglobin levels (p less than .05); however, FD patients had less adequate diets. The mean energy intake of women with FD was significantly lower than that of women with IBD (p less than .05) and was associated with inadequate or marginal intakes of many nutrients. Comparison of nutrient intakes between the IBD and FD groups revealed a significantly lower mean intake of folate, ascorbic acid, and vitamin A for women with FD than for women with IBD (p less than .05). In general, women had poorer diets and a higher prevalence of abnormal biochemical parameters than men. One notable feature of the dietary pattern of the women was that they consumed less meat than the general population consumed. Increasing meat consumption would improve the intake of many nutrients, including protein and iron. The results of this study suggest that more attention should be given to the adequacy of dietary intakes of gastrointestinal patients in general and of women in particular.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Changing risk behaviours for non-communicable disease in New Zealand working men--is workplace intervention effective?

AIMS: To evaluate the effectiveness of a health promotion programme targeting dietary behaviours and physical activity among male hourly-paid workers and to explore demographic and attitudinal influences on dietary patterns at baseline. METHODS: A controlled field trial compared workers at one intervention and one control worksite. The intervention comprised nutrition displays in the cafeteria and monthly 30-minute workshops for six months. Key outcome measures at six and twelve-months were self-reported dietary and lifestyle behaviours, nutrition knowledge, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference and blood pressure. RESULTS: 132 men at the intervention site and 121 men at the control site participated in the study and a high retention rate (94% at 6-months and 89% at 12-months) was achieved. At baseline, 40% of the total sample (253) were obese, 30% had elevated blood pressure, 59% indicated an excessive fat intake and 92% did not meet the recommended vegetable and fruit intake. The intervention reduced fat intake, increased vegetable intake and physical activity, improved nutrition knowledge and reduced systolic blood pressure when compared to the control site. There was no difference in change in mean BMI or waist circumference. Reduction in BMI was associated with reduction in fat intake. DISCUSSION: Low intensity workplace intervention can significantly improve reported health behaviours and nutrition knowledge although the impact on more objective measures of risk was variable. A longer duration or more intensive intervention may be required to achieve further reduction in risk factors.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Nutritional intakes in community-dwelling older Japanese adults: high intakes of energy and protein based on high consumption of fish, vegetables and fruits provide sufficient micronutrients.

The purpose of this study was to obtain detailed data on the dietary intake of energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients, especially minerals and vitamins, of healthy free-living people over the age of 70 in Japan and to clarify the correlations among nutrient intakes. The survey was conducted in November 2001 for 57 persons (men: 31, women: 26) aged 74 y (born in 1927) living in Niigata City, Japan. A precise weighing method was used to record food intake for three consecutive days. Nutrient intake was calculated based on the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (5th ed.). The intakes of energy and total protein were 44.8+/-7.7 kcal/kg/d and 1.80+/-0.35 g/kg/d for men and 38.1+/-7.6 kcal/ kg/d and 1.51+/-0.26 g/kg/d for women. These values are significantly higher than those proposed by the current Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) and the data by the 2001 National Nutrition Survey in Japan. The energy intake ratios from protein, carbohydrate and fat for men were 16 : 58 : 22, respectively, and the residual part was alcohol. For women, the ratios were 16 : 62 : 22. The proportion of total protein intake that consisted of animal protein was 57.8% for men and 52.8% for women. For both sexes, all of the mean daily intakes of nine minerals and 12 vitamins were higher than those prescribed for elderly Japanese people (> or =70 y) in the RDAs. Significant strong correlations were found between total protein intake and intakes of vitamins D, B2 and B6, as well as niacin and pantothenic acid (p<0.0001). Among the nine minerals, the correlations were very strong between potassium and magnesium, calcium and phosphorus, magnesium and iron, magnesium and copper, iron and copper, and zinc and copper (r's>0.700). For vitamins, strong correlations were found between vitamin A and folic acid, vitamin B2 and pantothenic acid, and folic acid and pantothenic acid. Furthermore, strong relationships were observed between potassium and folic acid, potassium and pantothenic acid, potassium and dietary fiber, phosphorus and vitamin B2, phosphorus and pantothenic acid, iron and folic acid, zinc and vitamin B12, and copper and vitamin B12. From these results, it is evident that age is not an important determinant of dietary intake among apparently healthy elderly Japanese people aged 74 y. In addition, the high intake of energy and protein in the Japanese dietary pattern, based upon high consumption of fish and/or shellfish, vegetables, and fruits, provide sufficient minerals and vitamins.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Dietary habits of first-year medical students assessed during clinical nutrition course.

To enhance the Introduction to Clinical Nutrition course at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, medical students taking the course from 1989 to 1992 (n = 616) were required to analyze by computer the nutrient composition of their own diets for a 24-h period. In 1991 and 1992, they were required to repeat the analysis at the completion of the course. Overall, fat comprised 30% of energy intake, and along with saturated fat and the cholesterol-saturated fat index, it declined virtually each year compared with the previous year. Significant changes were noted by the end of the course in 1991 and 1992 compared with the beginning, when fat comprised 26% of energy, and more students adhered to recommendations for dietary fat, saturated fat, and fiber. Vitamin C intakes exceeded the recommended dietary allowance by more than twofold and increased further by the end of the course in 1991 and 1992, probably indicating an increase in fruit and vegetable intake. Each year, most students rated the dietary assessment as moderately or very useful. These data suggest that dietary self-assessment is a useful tool for teaching clinical nutrition in medical schools and that, even before instruction in clinical nutrition, medical students are favorably altering their dietary patterns to a greater extent than the general population.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The maximal amount of dietary alpha-tocopherol intake in U.S. adults (NHANES 2001-2002).

The current study was designed to determine the maximal amount of alpha-tocopherol intake obtained from food in the U.S. diet, and to examine the effect of different food group intakes on this amount. Data from 2138 men and 2213 women aged >18 y were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2001-2002. Linear programming was used to generate diets with maximal alpha-tocopherol intake, with the conditions of meeting the recommended daily allowances or adequate intakes for a set of nutrients, sodium and fat recommendations, and energy limits, and that were compatible with the observed dietary patterns in the population. With food use and energy constraints in models, diets formulated by linear programming provided 19.3-24.9 mg alpha-tocopherol for men and women aged 19-50 or >50 y. These amounts decreased to 15.4-19.9 mg with the addition of the sodium, dietary reference intake, and fat constraints. The relations between maximal alpha-tocopherol intake and food group intakes were influenced by total fat restrictions. Although meeting current recommendations (15 mg/d) appears feasible for individuals, dramatic dietary changes that include greater intakes of nuts and seeds, and fruit and vegetables, are needed. Careful selection of the highest vitamin E source foods within these groups could further increase the likelihood of meeting the current recommended daily allowance.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Nutritional status of rural women in relation to their participation in mixed farming in the Tafresh area of Iran.

This study was conducted in the Tafresh area of Iran to assess the dietary patterns, time allocation, and nutritional status of rural women in relation to their participation in mixed farming activities. We selected 75 women from 40 villages by applying a stratified random-sampling technique. Cereals and grains were the major source of energy intake. According to the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) tables of India, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the respondents seemed to have no micronutrient and energy deficiencies during the spring season. They spent most of their time and energy on household, animal husbandry, and crop farming activities. According to measurements of body mass index (BMI), the respondents were well nourished. However, despite the high level of BMI, analysis suggested a negative energy balance. Nevertheless, analysis indicated that rural women with negative energy balance spent more time and energy in mixed farming and had a higher level of participation in related activities. Hence, it is evident from the results that the physical contribution of rural women in mixed farming activities has a detrimental effect on their nutritional status, at least during some parts of the year (e.g., spring or summer). Therefore, there is a need to adjust nutritional interventions to improve the sustainability of their food intake and to develop appropriate technologies in mixed farming to alleviate their work burdens.

Agriculture↗