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PubMed2002

Alcohol and drug use among rural and urban incarcerated substance abusers.

A number of prisoners use drugs. Limited information is available about the extent to which urban and urban substance abusers differ in their drug use in criminal justice settings. In addition, many believe that rural areas are protected from drug use. However, findings from this study show only marginally statistical significant differences in drug use between incarcerated rural and urban drug users. It was expected that urban drug users would be more drug career involved with consistently higher levels of drug use and associated problems. Specifically, rural drug users in this study were older at age of first use of marijuana and cocaine; report fewer years of cocaine, hallucinogen, and heroin use; and report more alcohol and sedative use. Findings from this study suggest that rural and urban drug users are similar and that rural areas may be protective from some drug use but risky for other drug use.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Regional study of nutritional status of urban primary schoolchildren. 2. West Jakarta and Bogor, Indonesia.

The study provides information on the nutritional status of 8- to 10-year-old primary schoolchildren in urban areas of Jakarta and Bogor, Indonesia, based on anthropometric indicators. It compares the use of the anthropometric indicators weight-for-age Z score, height-for-age Z score, weight-for-height Z score, and body mass index (BMI) to assess thinness (underweight and wasted) and overweight in children. A total of 1,367 children were examined. The nutritional status of the 8- to 10-year urban schoolchildren was better than that of urban children under 5 years old. The prevalence of underweight among urban schoolchildren ranged from 7.4% (girls) to 12.95% (boys), while underweight among urban children under 5 years old in 1998 was 29.7%. Meanwhile, the prevalence of overweight (BMI > 85th percentile) ranged from 15.3% (girls) to 17.8% (boys). There were more overweight children in the private schools than in the public schools. On average, private schoolchildren, of all ages and both sexes, were heavier and taller than public schoolchildren. The BMI indicator for "thinness" and "wasting", using the NHANES reference, indicates a false positive result. For detecting overweight in children aged 8 to 10 years, BMI is comparable to the other indices, weight-for-age, height-for-age, and weight-for-height.

Body Height↗
PubMed2006

Traditional cooked vegetable dishes as important sources of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene in the diets of Indian urban and rural families.

BACKGROUND: Fresh vegetable produce is abundant during the winter season in Punjab. It is an important source of vitamins and minerals in the Punjabi diet, but the availability of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene from the vegetables is altered to varying degrees when they are subjected to traditional household processing methods. OBJECTIVE: To determine the importance of traditional cooked vegetable dishes as sources of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene among urban and rural families during the winter. METHODS: Information about vegetable consumption, storage, and cooking practices was collected from 60 families, 30 each from urban and rural areas of Ludhiana District, Punjab, India. Samples of the common cooked vegetable dishes were prepared in the laboratory by methods ascertained from the survey and analyzed for ascorbic acid and beta-carotene. RESULTS: The average total daily per capita consumption of vegetables by urban and rural families was 411.7 and 365.9 g, respectively. Cooked vegetable dishes provided 68.7% of the total vegetable intake for urban families and 85.0% for rural families. On average, the edible portion constituted 78.9% of the weight of the vegetables. Ten cooked vegetable dishes that were most frequently consumed by the families (mustard saag, potato-spinach, potato-fenugreek, potato-brinjal, potato-cauliflower, potato-capsicum, potato-carrots, potato-beans, potato-peas, and cabbage-peas) were selected for preparation in the laboratory and nutritional analysis. The average concentrations of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene in the cooked vegetable dishes were 46.0 mg/100 g and 794.2 microg/100 g fresh weight, respectively. The percentage losses of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene during preparation and cooking were 26.1% and 25.9%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: For adult Indian men and women, the recommended dietary allowance of ascorbic acid is 40 mg, and that of beta-carotene is 2,400 microg. Cooked vegetable dishes provided 269.9% and 77.5% of the recommended dietary allowances of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene, respectively, indicating that these dishes are good sources of these nutrients in the diets of both urban and rural families during the winter season.

Ascorbic Acid↗
PubMed2026

Urban Design Quality and Clinical Mental Health: A Systematic Review.

ObjectivesThis systematic review synthesizes empirical evidence on core urban design dimensions that affect clinical mental health outcomes and examines how environmental exposures mediate or moderate these relationships.BackgroundUrban design has increasingly been recognized as a determinant of psychological well-being, yet a standardized framework to evaluate its mental health impact remains underdeveloped.MethodsFollowing PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we systematically reviewed 19 quantitative empirical studies published through January 2025, examining relationships between outdoor urban design features and validated clinical mental health indicators across four major databases.ResultsFindings reveal that urban design influences clinical mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, stress, cognitive decline) through two objective spatial scales: street-level features (imageability, enclosure, human scale, complexity) and neighborhood environments (land use mix, density, green infrastructure). Environmental exposures (traffic, noise, air pollution) operate as perceptual and experiential mechanisms that mediate or moderate the mental health effects of these spatial design features.ConclusionsWe propose an integrated three-domain conceptual framework distinguishing objective spatial design scales from subjective exposure mechanisms. This framework provides evidence-based guidance for urban planners and policymakers toward creating mentally healthier urban environments.

Humans↗
PubMed2006

Use of an inclusive-partnership strategy in urban areas of Orissa, India, to increase compliance in a mass drug administration for the control of lymphatic filariasis.

In India, the programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis, which is largely based on mass administrations of diethylcarbamazine, has, in terms of coverage and compliance, been generally much less successful in urban areas than in rural communities. An innovative strategy to make the programme more effective in urban settings, largely based on an inclusive partnership and community participation, has recently been developed. An evaluation of the strategy's implementation in Orissa, which employed both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection, revealed significantly higher coverage and compliance in an urban area where the strategy had been implemented than in a similar urban area where there had been no such intervention. Application of this strategy in other urban settings in general, and in small towns in particular, is recommended in India.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Higher asthma occurrence in an urban than a suburban area: role of house dust mite skin allergy.

Understanding of geographical differences in asthma prevalence may be helpful in explaining recent increases in the occurrence of asthma. We wondered whether differences in allergic sensitization or other factors could explain differences in reported occurrence of asthma between an urban centre and a neighbouring suburban area. From the European Community Respiratory Health Survey (ECRHS) questionnaire, responses on asthma symptoms and risk factors and results of 11 skin allergy tests were available from 656 young adults living in urban or south suburban Antwerp, Belgium. Answers to five asthma questions were selected as dependent variables, and eight personal or environmental risk factors, as well as house dust mite (HDM) allergy, as independent variables. The effect of each independent variable on the association of asthma variables with area was assessed. Prior asthma diagnosis, present asthma symptoms, the selected risk factors and HDM allergy were all more frequently recorded in urban Antwerp. Difference in HDM allergy accounted for most of the difference in prior (mostly childhood) asthma diagnosis, since correction for it decreased the odds ratio from 2.10 to 1.65. On the contrary, the regional differences in recent asthma symptoms were not explained by HDM allergy differences nor by any other factor under study. This urban-suburban comparison indicated that house dust mite allergy is a major determinant of prior (childhood) asthma, whereas factors contributing to higher urban prevalence of present asthma symptoms could not be identified. Furthermore, our results indicate that it may be inappropriate to combine data from neighbouring areas, when their similarity has not been verified.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Stroke in urban and rural populations in north-east Bulgaria: incidence and case fatality findings from a 'hot pursuit' study.

BACKGROUND: Bulgaria's official stroke mortality rates are higher for rural than urban areas. Official mortality data has indicated that these rates are amongst the highest in Europe. There has been a lack of studies measuring stroke incidence in urban and rural populations. METHODS: We established intensive notification networks covering 37791 residents in Varna city and 18656 residents (55% of them village-dwellers), all aged 45 to 84, in 2 rural districts. From May 1, 2000 to April 30, 2001 frequent contact was maintained with notifiers and death registrations were scanned regularly. Suspected incident strokes were assessed by study neurologists within a median of 8 days from onset. RESULTS: 742 events were referred for neurological assessment and 351 of these, which met the WHO criteria for stroke, were in persons aged 45 to 84 and were first ever in a lifetime. Incidence rates, standardised using the world standard weights for ages 45 to 84, were 909 (/100,000/year) (95% CI 712-1105) and 597 (482-712) for rural and urban males and 667 (515-818) and 322 (248-395) for rural and urban females. Less than half were admitted to hospital (15% among rural females over 65). Twenty-eight day case fatality was 35% (123/351) overall and 48% (46/96) in village residents. The excess case fatality in the villages could not be explained by age or severity. CONCLUSIONS: Rural incidence rates were over twice those reported for western populations but the rate for urban females was similar to other western rates. The high level and marked heterogeneity in both stroke incidence and case fatality merit further investigation.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Anthropometry measures and prevalence of obesity in the urban adult population of Cameroon: an update from the Cameroon Burden of Diabetes Baseline Survey.

BACKGROUND: The objective of the study was to provide baseline and reference data on the prevalence and distribution of overweight and obesity, using different anthropometric measurements in adult urban populations in Cameroon. METHODS: The Cameroon Burden of Diabetes Baseline Survey was a cross-sectional study, conducted in 4 urban districts (Yaoundé, Douala, Garoua and Bamenda) of Cameroon, using the WHO Step approach for population-based assessment of cardiovascular risk factors. Body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio were measured using standardized methods. Overall, 10,011 individuals, 6,004 women and 4,007 men, from 4,189 households, aged 15 years and above participated. RESULTS: Based on body mass index, more than 25% of urban men and almost half of urban women were either overweight or obese with 6.5% of men and 19.5% of women being obese. The prevalence of obesity showed considerable variation with age in both genders. Using body mass index provided the highest prevalence of obesity in men (6.5%) and waist-to-hip ratio the lowest prevalence (3.2%). Among women, using waist-to-hip ratio and waist circumference yielded the highest prevalence of obesity (28%) and body mass index the lowest (19.5%). There was a trend towards an increase in age-adjusted odd ratios of being overweight or obese with duration of education in both sexes. CONCLUSION: The study provides current data on anthropometric measurements and obesity in urban Cameroonian populations, and found high prevalences of overweight and obesity particularly over 35 years of age, and among women. Prevalence varied according to the measure used. Our findings highlight the need to carry out further studies in Cameroonian and other Sub-Saharan African populations to provide appropriate cut-off points for the identification of people at risk of obesity-related disorders, and indicate the need to implement interventions to reverse increasing levels of obesity.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Psychiatric morbidity among women in urban and rural New Zealand: psycho-social correlates.

A random community survey into psychiatric disorder among women in urban and rural New Zealand found urban women to be more often at age extremes, not married, better educated, in more paid employment, and to have better household and child-care facilities. There were no overall urban-rural differences in the GHQ-28 score, total PSE score or PSE case rates. A multiple regression found the same three factors accounted for most of the explained variance in both the urban and the rural total PSE scores: these were the quality of social networks, difficulties with alcohol, and the past experience of childhood sexual abuse. Low socioeconomic status, poor physical health, and adult experiences of sexual and physical abuse were also associated with increased psychiatric morbidity in both samples. Other individual sociodemographic items were correlated with psychiatric morbidity for the urban or rural sample only.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Talc and amosite/crocidolite preferentially deposited in the lungs of nonoccupational female lung cancer cases in urban areas of Japan.

To analyze the correlation between asbestos lung burden and lung cancer, lungs of 211 female cases with and without lung cancer were examined. Phase-contrast microscopic (PCM) counting of ferruginous (FBs) and uncoated fibers (UFs), which had length longer than 5 microns and aspect ratios greater than 3:1, revealed a significantly higher level of FBs plus UFs in urban lung cancer cases than urban non-lung cancer cases (1380.5 vs. 550.3; p < 0.001). No difference was noted between rural lung cancer and non-lung cancer cases. Analytical electron microscopic studies identified various kinds of mineral fibers with an aspect ratio greater than 3:1 in the lung tissue including chrysotile, actinolite/tremolite, amosite/crocidolite, fibrous talc, mica, silica, iron, wollastonite, chlorite, kaoline, and others. The most frequently detected fibers were thin, short chrysotile fibers, most of which could not be found by PCM, followed by relatively thick, long actinolite/tremolite fibers, fibrous talc, and in a smaller number, amosite/crocidolite of intermediate length and width. Amosite/crocidolite and fibrous talc counts in urban lung cancer cases were greater than those of urban non-lung cancer cases, rural lung cancer, and rural non-lung cancer cases; these findings were consistent with PCM analysis. Therefore, it is suggested that fibers detected in PCM observation may be mainly amosite/crocidolite with some parts fibrous talc and that fibrous talc in urban environments may be another candidate for carcinogenic or cocarcinogenic factors of female lung cancer.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Urban particle-induced apoptosis and phenotype shifts in human alveolar macrophages.

Epidemiological studies report a small but positive association between short-term increases in airborne particulate matter and small increases in morbidity and mortality from respiratory and cardiovascular disease in urban areas. However, the lack of a mechanistic explanation to link particle exposure and human health effects makes it difficult to validate the human health effects. The present study tested the hypothesis that urban particles could cause apoptosis of human alveolar macrophages(AM) and a shift of their phenotypes to a higher immune active state, which would provide a mechanism to explain an inflammatory response. Freshly isolated human AM were incubated for 24 hr with urban particles (#1648 and #1649), Mount Saint Helen's ash (MSH), and residual oil fly ash (ROFA). Cell viability was assessed by trypan blue exclusion and apoptosis was demonstrated by morphology, cell death ELISA, and DNA ladder formation. Additionally, AM were characterized according to RFD1(+) (immune stimulatory macrophages) and RFD1(+)7(+) (suppressor macrophages) phenotypes by flow cytometry. ROFA particles caused AM necrosis at concentrations as low as 10 microg/ml, urban particles had no effect except at 200 microg/ml, and MSH had no effect at 200 microg/ml. ROFA (25 microg/ml) and particles #1648 or #1649 (100 microg/ml) caused apoptosis of AM by all three criteria, but 200 microg/ml MSH had no effect. Finally, 25 microg/ml ROFA and 100 microg/ml particles #1648 or #1649 up regulated the expression of the RFD1(+) AM phenotype, while only ROFA decreased the RFD1(+)7(+) phenotype. Consequently, ROFA and urban particles can induce apoptosis of human AM and increase the ratio of AM phenotypes toward a higher immune active state (i.e., increased RFD1(+):RFD1(+)7(+) ratio). Ifurban particles cause similar changes in vivo, this could result in lung inflammation and possible increased pulmonary and cardiovascular disease.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1981

Similarities and differences between an urban and a rural hospital based home care program.

Over a 3 month period, 116 patients assigned on the basis of geographical proximity to an urban or rural Hospital Based Home Care Program were examined to determine whether services provided by an urban-based HBHC team could be extended by a rural-based team to a similar but rural, chronically ill patient population. Variables reflecting medical and socio-economic patient characteristics and level of services provided were gathered to test for significant differences between the two programs. Two-tailed difference of group means t-tests of the data revealed that only number of medications and supplies dispensed attained significance; patients in the urban program received more than their rural counterparts, a result probably due to the greater proximity of the program physician to the urban-based team. The results appear to indicate that it is possible to maintain severely disabled patients in their own homes in rural as well as urban settings.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

The limits to cumulative causation: international migration from Mexican urban areas.

We present theoretical arguments and empirical research to suggest that the principal mechanisms of cumulative causation do not function in large urban settings. Using data from the Mexican Migration Project, we found evidence of cumulative causation in small cities, rural towns and villages, but not in large urban areas. With event-history models, we found little positive effect of community-level social capital and a strong deterrent effect of urban labor markets on the likelihood of first and later U.S. trips for residents of urban areas in Mexico, suggesting that the social process of migration from urban areas is distinct from that in the more widely studied rural migrant-sending communities of Mexico.

Causality↗
PubMed2005

Rural-urban differences in breast cancer screening among African American women.

This study reports on rural-urban differences in the effectiveness of a church-based educational program aimed at increasing breast cancer screening among African American women ages 40 and over. The data were drawn from an intervention study in urban Nashville, and a pilot extension of the study in five rural counties of West Tennessee. The partial program was equally effective in rural Tennessee (17.6% increase in mammography attainment from baseline to Time 3) and in urban Nashville (22.3% increase). The rural women reported more barriers to mammography screening than the urban women. The rural women were more likely not to get a mammogram because they did not perceive a need, because they thought mammography was embarrassing, and because of their religious beliefs. The results of this study demonstrate that an inexpensive church-based educational program was equally effective in both rural and urban Tennessee for increasing mammography rates among African American women.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Differences in aetiology and thyroid function in endemic goitre between rural and urban areas of the Darfur region of the Sudan.

To investigate further the possible causes of the difference in goitre frequency between the rural and urban areas of Darfur region in the Sudan, urinary iodine excretion (UIE) and thyroid hormone concentrations were measured in 97 goitrous and 31 non-goitrous subjects from rural Darfur, 62 goitrous subjects from urban Darfur and 37 non-goitrous subjects from Khartoum. The mean UIE was equally low in goitrous subjects from rural Darfur (56.2 +/- 43.1 micrograms/g creatinine) and urban Darfur (46.3 +/- 20.7 micrograms/g creatinine) and both values were lower than that in the non-goitrous subjects from Khartoum (83.6 +/- 41.9 micrograms/g creatinine). Subjects from rural Darfur also had lower mean serum thyroxine and higher triiodothyronine and thyroid stimulating hormone levels. The mean serum thiocyanate level of 3.2 mg/l in goitrous subjects from rural Darfur was significantly higher than the values of 1.8 ng/ml in goitrous subjects from urban Darfur (P less than 0.001) and 1.7 mg/l in non-goitrous subjects from Khartoum (P less than 0.001). It is concluded that the additional contribution of goitrogenic factors in rural Darfur induces thyroid anomalies to a greater degree than are most likely caused by the iodine deficiency alone in subjects from urban Darfur.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Trends in the rural-urban distribution of general pediatricians.

OBJECTIVE: A major objective of national and state health policy has been to increase primary care physician supply in rural areas. It is not known whether this objective has been met for general pediatricians. This study examines trends in the rural-urban distribution of general pediatricians in the United States from 1981 to 1996. DESIGN: Descriptive serial cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: At selected 5-year intervals, all clinically active general pediatricians in the United States listed in the American Medical Association Physician Masterfile. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The proportion of pediatricians practicing in rural counties and the ratio of pediatricians to the child population (per 100 000 children <18 years old) for US counties. RESULTS: Between 1981 and 1996, the total number of general pediatricians increased from 19 739 to 34 100. However, rural pediatrician-to-child population ratios (PCPRs) remained well below urban ratios. Although rural counties of all population sizes experienced some gains over time, only those over 25 000 populations had a meaningful increase in their PCPR. Overall, the urban PCPR increased by 14.0 (or an additional pediatrician for every 7150 children) whereas the rural ratio only increased by 4.1 (an additional pediatrician for every 24 400 children). The percentage of recent residency graduates opting for rural practice declined by half (14.6% to 7.4%) over the 15-year study period. Women and international graduates were consistently less likely to practice in rural counties than were men and US graduates, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The near doubling in general pediatrician numbers from 1981 to 1996 yielded only a modest increase in pediatrician availability for rural children. The discrepancy between urban and rural pediatrician supply increased during this period and should continue growing based on the increasingly urban location of recent residency graduates and the continued growth of women in pediatrics. New policy strategies are needed to improve rural pediatrician availability, including focusing on larger rural counties and addressing barriers to rural practice for women. pediatrics/manpower, pediatrics/trends, rural health, physicians/supply and distribution, medically underserved area.

Cross-Sectional Studies↗
PubMed1993

[Urban focus of schistosomiasis in a metropolitan area in a southeastern region of Brazil].

Urban focus of schistosomiasis in an urban area of South-eastern, Brazil. An active, urban focus of schistosomiasis in Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil is described. It is located in the "Julien Rien" Park, a leisure area of 48,500 m2 created by the local administration in 1980 on the south side of city. Snail captures were made over 10 years (1983-1992) resulting in the collection of 3,361 Biomphalaria glabrata, ranging from 6.4 to 12.8 mm in diameter (mean = 9.3); 23 (0.7%) of these were found to be infected with Schistosoma mansoni. The finding of S. mansoni intermediate hosts in urban areas (ponds, small artificial lakes, etc) may be related to the introduction of fish and ornamental aquatic plants coming from specialized shops or areas in which they occur. It is suggested that the introduction of fish aquatic plants into urban water collections without a quarantine period should be avoided, as a prophylactic measure.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Epidemiological characteristics of Schistosoma mansoni infection in rural and urban endemic areas of Minas Gerais, Brazil.

To compare the epidemiological profile and socioeconomic factors associated to the infection by Schistosoma mansoni in a rural and an urban endemic area a cross-sectional study was performed in Agua Branca de Minas (rural area) and Bela Fama (urban area), both situated in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Two hundred and eighty eight individuals were surveyed in the rural area and 787 in the urban area. Water contact and socioeconomic questionnaires were used to identify risk factors for the infection. The prevalences of 38.8% and 9.7% and the geometric mean of eggs per gram of faeces of 117.8 and 62.3 were found in the rural and urban areas, respectively. By multivariate statistical analysis age groups over nine years old and previous specific treatment were associated with the infection in rural area. In urban area age over nine years old, low quality housing, weekly fishing and swimming were associated after adjustment by logistic regression.

Adolescent↗