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PubMed2001

Vessels in ferns: structural, ecological, and evolutionary significance.

We have studied macerated xylem of ferns, supplemented by sections, by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in a series of 20 papers, the results of which are summarized and interpreted here. Studies were based mostly on macerations, but also on some sections; these methods should be supplemented by other methods to confirm or modify the findings presented. Guidelines are cited for our interpretations of features of pit membranes. Fern xylem offers many distinctive features: (1) presence of numerous vessels and various numbers of tracheids in most species; (2) presence of vessels in both roots and rhizomes in virtually all species; (3) presence of specialized end walls in vessels of only a few species; (4) multiple end-wall perforation plates in numerous species; (5) lateral-wall perforation plates in numerous species; (6) porose pit membranes associated with perforation plates in all species; and (7) pit dimorphism, yielding wide membrane-free perforations alternating with extremely narrow pits. Multiple end wall perforation plates and lateral wall perforation plates are associated with the packing of tracheary elements in fascicles in ferns: facets of tips of elements contact numerous facets of adjacent elements; all such contacts are potential sites for conduction by means of perforations. This packing differs from that in primary xylem of dicotyledons and monocotyledons. Porosities in pit membranes represent a way of interconnecting vessel elements within a rhizome or root. In addition, these porosities can interconnect rhizome vessel elements with those of roots, a feature of importance because roots are adventitious in ferns as opposed to those of vascular plants with taproots. Fully-formed or incipient (small-to-medium sized porosities in pit membranes) perforation plates are widespread in ferns. These are believed to represent (1) ease of lysis of pit membranes via pectinase and cellulase; (2) numerous potential sites for perforation plate formation because of fasciculate packing of tracheary elements; (3) evolution of ferns over a long period of time, so that lysis pathways have had time to form; (4) lack of disadvantage in perforation plate presence, regardless of whether habitat moisture fluctuates markedly or little, because ferns likely have maintaining integrity of water columns that override the embolism-confining advantage of tracheids. Although all ferns share some common features, the diversity in xylem anatomy discovered thus far in ferns suggests that much remains to be learned.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

[Phase-directional management of protective plantations. II. Typical protective plantation: farmland shelterbelt].

This paper is the second part of the series reports on phase-directional management of protective plantations. Based on the fundamentals of phase-directional management for protective plantations in paper I, discussions on protective maturity, management phase, and regeneration patterns and methods for shelterbelt or windbreak were conducted. Firstly, the two points of protective maturity of Populus spp. i.e., initial protective maturity age (IPMA) and terminal protective maturity age (TPMA), were determined. According to the growth pattern of shelterbelt, the IPMA was 16 years and 24 years for local poplar and hybrid poplar shelterbelts, respectively, and TPMA was the natural age for both local and hybrid poplar shelterbelts, which was determined on the basis of change pattern of porosity. Secondly, the three management phases of shelterbelts were divided quantitatively based on the analyses of discrete degrees of diameter, IPMA and TPMA. Thirdly, the corresponding measures for phase-directional management in each phase were also developed. In pre-maturity phase, i.e., the period from establishment of shelterbelt to IPMA, the measures such as soil cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, weed clearing, intercropping and branch cutting etc. should be conducted. In maturity phase, i.e., the period from IPMA to TPMA in theory, but the period from IPMA to regeneration age in practice, the techniques of managing the shelterbelt porosity around 0.25 (the best porosity value for wind protection) should be developed. In this phase, the porosity model was constructed according to the distribution pattern of base area for the poplar shelterbelt. The classification of shelterbelt trees, i.e., 4-grade classification, was established by considering the contribution of trees to the shelterbelt structure, which can provide the standard for thinning and tending of shelterbelt. Additionally, the density controlling techniques were also discussed. In the period of regeneration, i.e., from the regeneration age to the establishment of next generation shelterbelt, the techniques of regeneration such as determination of regeneration age, arrangement of regeneration patterns should be paid great emphasis. The influences of regeneration patterns and methods on regeneration period were specially discussed, and the changes of three management phases were illustrated by different regeneration patterns in the end of this paper. These results were obtained from poplar shelterbelt, but the fundamentals could be applied in any other shelterbelts.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Cement pressurization after provisional repair of femoral cortical defects.

Cortical defects are common and problematic in cemented revision hip arthroplasty. Extruded cement can cause thermal injury, pain, and impingement. Decreased cement pressure limits bony interdigitation and leads to loosening. Historically, surgeons have used a finger to contain cement and improve pressure, and decrease porosity, but, with large or multiple defects, fingers are ineffective. Novel solutions--such as wrapping foil suture packaging or half a syringe barrel around the defects--have been previously published. In the study reported here, we used modern cementing techniques, continuous pressure monitoring, and porosity calculations to analyze the utility of the 3 provisional defect-fixation techniques. The foil and the hemisyringe worked as well as a finger (P > .05). All 3 techniques enhanced pressurization and maintained the porosity reduction. Although manually pressurizing cement and feeling resistance provide the surgeon with more tactile feedback, using the gun and a proximal adapter was more effective in improving pressure. Using these provisional defect-fixation techniques as well as a cement gun and proximal adapter can improve cement pressure and decrease porosity. These techniques are particularly useful with large or multiple cortical defects encountered in revision arthroplasty or total hip arthroplasty after open reduction.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

The effect on the ultrastructure of dental enamel of excimer-dye, argon-ion and CO2 lasers.

This study aimed to investigate the ultrastructural changes that occur in dental enamel irradiated with pulsed excimer-dye, continuous-wave (CW) argon-ion and CW CO2 lasers. The pulsed excimer-dye laser produced deep craters, rough damaged surfaces with underlying porosity and amorphous vitrified material. The vitrification of the enamel indicated that the temperature in these areas must have been at least in the range 1280 to 1600 degrees C. The CW argon-ion laser irradiation produced a changed non-cratered surface with inter-crystalline porosity and a mixture of small and some large irregularly packed recrystallized enamel crystals. The CW CO2 laser produced shallow craters, surface crazing and lifting off the removal of the surface layer to expose the underlying roughened enamel. The ultrastructure revealed inter- and intra-crystalline porosity, a mixture of small but variable size irregularly packed recrystallized enamel crystals and also well packed large crystals which indicated further grain growth. The porosity in lased enamel was overall very similar to that seen in enamel heated in an electric furnace to a temperature of 600 degrees C. The presence of recrystallized enamel crystals indicated a temperature rise of approximately 1000 degrees C and the grain growth indicated that a temperature > or = 1000 degrees C existed for some time after the laser irradiation. In general the excimer-dye laser produced most surface destruction because of its higher power density and shorter interaction time and the argon-ion laser produced least damage. These results indicated that the lasers used in this study require much more refinement before they can find therapeutic application to dental enamel, and this may well be the case for other lasers being investigated for clinical dental practise.

Argon↗
PubMed2003

Separation and recovery of radioactive and non-radioactive toxic trace elements from aqueous industrial effluents.

An update is presented on liquid membrane-based processes as viable and relevant alternatives to conventional approaches such as precipitation, solvent extraction, ion exchange processes and electrochemical techniques for the removal and recovery of some toxic and/or valuable trace metal ions including some actinides and fission products e.g. U, Am, Y etc and As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn etc from radioactive as well as non-radioactive aqueous waste solutions respectively. In particular, results of experiments aimed at developing supported liquid membrane(SLM)-based process using commercially available porous membranes and indigenously prepared track--etch membranes (TEMs) have been critically examined in laboratory studies to generate basic data needed to evaluate their utility for continuous operation without regeneration. These include effect of pore size, porosity, optimum pore size and their reusability. It is clearly demonstrated that indigenously prepared 10 microm thick TEMs with a porosity in the range of 2-5% give comparable transport rates for metal ions-matching with that of commercial membranes of much higher thickness (160 microm) and higher porosity of 60-85%. The smaller thickness of TEMs more than compensates for their lower porosity. It is shown that because of their well defined pore characteristics TEMs could serve as model supports in SLM studies. By comparing the values of permeability coefficient (P) for TEM and polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE) supports for the transport of Pb2+ chosen as a typical divalent metal ion, and using di-2 ethyl hexyl phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) as the carrier, it is unambiguously proved that diffusion of the metal complex across the membrane is the rate controlling step in metal ion transport in SLM-based processes. An overview of the experimental findings along with future outlook and suggestions for further work are presented in this paper.

Actinoid Series Elements↗
PubMed1988

The effect of centrifugation on the fatigue life of bone cement in the presence of surface irregularities.

Reduction of the porosity of bone cement by centrifugation significantly improves the fatigue life of the cement when smooth, waisted specimens are tested. However, bone cement in vivo has surface irregularities at the interdigitation of the cement with the trabecular bone. The effect of centrifugation on the fatigue life of Simplex P in specimens containing surface irregularities was investigated by examining both composite specimens of trabecular bone and bone cement and specimens containing a sharp, circumferential notch. For the specimens with the sharp notch, the bone cement that had been centrifuged lasted significantly longer in fatigue (47,039 +/- 40,277 cycles) than the uncentrifuged specimens (3103 +/- 1950 cycles). Eleven of 15 uncentrifuged specimens broke at the location of a void, rather than the notch. In contrast, when the porosity was reduced by centrifugation, 13 of the 15 specimens broke at the notch. For the specimens that were a composite of bone cement and trabecular bone, the centrifuged specimens had a significant increase in fatigue life compared to the uncentrifuged specimens when tested at both 7 MPA (641,056 +/- 444,131 cycles vs. 237,969 +/- 124,153 cycles) and 15 MPA (8800 +/- 4673 cycles vs. 1534 +/- 719 cycles). Reduction of porosity in bone cement by centrifugation significantly extends its fatigue life even in the presence of trabecular bone or sharp surface notches as used in total joint replacements. These data support the concept that reduction of porosity of bone cement by centrifugation may extend the duration of fixation of the components in cemented total joint arthroplasties.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Haller's organ in the tick family Argasidae (Acari: Parasitiformes: Ixodida).

The structure of Haller's organ in all major groups of soft ticks, family Argasidae, is reexamined, and hypotheses of setal homology are proposed based on a comparative study of developmental patterns. The larvae of most taxa have 7 setae in the anterior pit (1 serrate, 1 conical, 2 fine, 2 porose, 1 grooved) and 4 porose setae in the capsule. The postlarval stages add up to 3 setae to the anterior pit (1 serrate, 1 porose, 1 grooved) and up to 3 porose setae to the capsule. Preliminary hypotheses of polarity, distinguishing ancestral from derived character states, are generated for most characters examined by comparisons with results obtained for the other major family of ticks, Ixodidae, and (where possible) other members of Parasitiformes. Most of the variability in the setal complement of the anterior pit and capsule results from paedomorphosis, and nearly all the observed changes in the setal complement (both modifications of addition patterns and changes in fundamental numbers) are restricted to single species or small species groups. A correlation between changes in Haller's organ structure and changes in life history patterns is suggested but cannot be confirmed based on presently available data.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

[Antibiotic release by tricalcic phosphate bone implantation. In vitro and in vivo pharmacokinetics of different galenic forms].

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the load and the release of antibiotics obtained with an implant made of a macroporous beta tricalcium phosphate ceramic (beta-TCP). Two parameters have been assessed: macroporosity and external shape (beads and parallelepipeds). In vitro, the ceramic beads were soaked in a Vancomycin-aqueous-solution, and the load of the antibiotic was then evaluated: it was 9.3% of the weight of the 40%-porosity beads and 4.6% of the weight of the 20%-porosity beads. The release has been evaluated by elution in phosphate-buffered-saline (PBS). With a 20% porosity, 12 beads (6.3 mm, 279 +/- 38 mg) demonstrated a short an massive release which ended within the 32 first hours. On the opposite, the release was sustained until the third week for the 40%-porosity beads (6.9 mm, 353 +/- 25 mg), while only one third of the load was released during the first 24 hours. A macroporosity of 40% of the ceramic could allow a deep incorporation of the antibiotic in the beads and thus decrease the rate of release. The in vivo study compared the bone concentrations of antibiotics obtained after implantations of either parallelepipedical or spherical devices in the distal femurs of 14 sheep. The bone concentrations of Gentamicin obtained with parallelepipeds until the end of the third week were from 5 to 10 times the minimum inhibitory concentration of this antibiotic for staphylococci. On the opposite, beads achieved only low concentrations of Vancomycin and nearly no detectable Gentamicin in the bone. We hypothesize a negative effect of the fibrous tissue which fills the gaps between the beads, and which could impair the diffusion of the antibiotics into the bone.

Aminoglycosides↗
PubMed2002

Hydroxyapatite ceramic bodies with tailored mechanical properties for different applications.

A perfect control on the final ceramic features will enable the research/clinical community to spread the use of calcium phosphate ceramic bodies to a large number of applications and/or requirements. The mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite ceramic bodies manufactured by different techniques and with different porosities is presented. The flexural strength, hardness, fracture toughness, surface roughness, and their evolution after immersion in SBF are studied. An increase of the mechanical properties with density is observed. The factors governing these results are analyzed. The increase of the porosity percentage of the bodies results in an increase on the surface roughness. The degradation studies show that the HA ceramics keep their integrity and mechanical properties under physiological conditions during the soaking time studied. The OHAp ceramic bodies with controlled porosity could be appropriated for hard tissue substitution or as a carriers for controlled delivery of drugs or as scaffolds for tissue engineering.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1995

In vivo mechanical and histological characteristics of HA-coated implants vary with coating vendor.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the interface attachment strength and histology of hydroxylapatite (HA) coated and uncoated titanium and cobalt-chromium alloy implants. The canine transcortical plug model was utilized. Four different hydroxylapatite coatings were evaluated. In vitro analysis confirmed that all coatings met FDA guidelines for HA coatings. An unspecified FDA parameter, porosity was found to range from 5-15%. Mechanical testing of the bone-implant interface demonstrated large variation in the performance of the coatings. However, further evaluation of two of the coatings did not demonstrate variations in mechanical characteristics. The histologic findings confirmed the mechanical testing results. The coatings which demonstrated the best mechanical characteristics had excellent bone apposition and uniformity and maintenance of the HA coating at all time periods upon histologic evaluation. Conversely, the coatings which demonstrated inferior mechanical characteristics demonstrated variable amounts of bone apposition and moderate to severe coating degradation and breakup. Cell-mediated osteolysis was observed in regions of severe coating degradation, and particle migration was noted in regions far from the interface. It was hoped that the four coatings would behave similarly as they all met current FDA guidelines. The only parameter which differed significantly among the coatings was coating porosity. Our results indicate that coatings with large porosities were associated with increased coating degradation and poor mechanical performance and osteolysis at the bone-coating interface.

Alloys↗
PubMed2006

Fabrication of microporous polyurethane by spray phase inversion method as small diameter vascular grafts material.

Microporous polyurethane vascular prostheses with a 4 mm diameter and 0.3-0.4 mm wall thickness were fabricated by a spray phase inversion technique. In this study, the effect of distance between spray guns (SG) and rotating mandrel (RM), the effect of rate of rotating mandrel (RRM), and the type of nonsolvent on pore morphology of PU films were evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique. It was observed that when the distance between SG and RM was increased or the rate of RM was decreased, the porosity of PU films increased and consequently the tensile strength decreased and compliance value increased. Compliance was measured in vitro by volume and vessel diameter changes. Furthermore, when the coagulant (water) was changed to the water/methanol, the porosity of PU film increased and porous morphology changed to filamentous morphology. Attachment of anchorage dependent cells, namely L929 fibroblast cells, were investigated in stationary culture conditions. The cells adhesion and cells growth were studied using optical photomicrographs. The results show that by increasing the porosity content of PU films would consequently increase the cell ingrowths.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Bone response to a novel highly porous surface in a canine implantable chamber.

Long-term survival of uncemented hip components is dependent upon successful biological fixation. This study examined a new prosthetic surface treatment consisting of a highly porous open structure of commercially pure titanium, Tritanium Dimensionalized Metal; its overall porosity is approximately 65-70%. With the use of an implantable chamber in dogs, the effects of this treatment on bone ingrowth and strength of attachment were compared to both titanium (overall porosity of 30-35%) and cobalt chrome beads (overall porosity of 35-40%), with and without hydroxyapatite coating. At 6 and 12 weeks, chambers were explanted and specimens underwent high-resolution radiographic imaging and mechanical testing. At 12 weeks, Tritanium surfaces had greater bone penetration and tensile strength than remaining surface types. Over 40% of the Tritanium specimens had a tensile strength greater than 500 N, exceeding the testing capability of the servohydraulic equipment. The highly porous Tritanium surfaces allow for a far greater amount of bone ingrowth than beaded surfaces, and may create a geometry that enhances mechanical strength. Tritanium Dimensionalized Metal surface treatment may result in a clinically valuable implant fixation surface to induce rapid ingrowth and a strong bone-implant interface, contributing to increased implant survivorship.

Alloys↗
PubMed2005

Gentamicin-loaded calcium carbonate materials: comparison of two drug-loading modes.

Synthetic aragonite-based porous materials were drug loaded with gentamicin sulphate, an antibiotic active on Staphylococcus aureus responsible for osteomyelitis. Drug loading was accomplished by two different ways: by integration of gentamicin in material during processing or by soaking material into gentamicin solutions. We first investigated the influence of drug loading on compressive strength of materials. Results indicate that soaked materials presented the same compressive strength than unloaded materials with the same porosity. By contrast, the integration of gentamicin during processing increased significantly the compressive strength of materials. The materials drug content before elution was a least 10 times higher when gentamicin was integrated during processing comparatively to soaked materials. The study of in vitro gentamicin release showed that for materials with gentamicin integrated during material processing, high concentrations of gentamicin were released up to 8 or 12 days, against 4 days for soaked materials. The transport coefficients calculation, for the first step of release, indicated that the rate of release was higher for materials with integrated gentamicin because of the higher gentamicin content. The porosity rate influenced the rate of release for materials positively with gentamicin integrated during processing contrary to soaked materials for which a higher porosity rate allowed a deeper penetration of gentamicin during drug loading and then a slightly slower release. Results indicate that aragonite-based material with gentamicin integrated during material processing may be used either as resorbable device for release of high concentrations of gentamicin or as biomaterial for combined therapy: bone substitution and prevention or treatment of osteomyelitis.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed2005

The contradictory effects of pores on fatigue cracking of bone cement.

The beneficial effect of porosity reduction on the fatigue life of bone cement has been demonstrated in numerous experimental studies. Clinically, however, it seems that the beneficial effect of porosity reduction of cement around total hip replacement components can only be found in large follow-up studies. Little is known about the actual mechanical effect of a pore on fatigue crack formation in cement mantles. We studied the effect of pores on the crack formation process in a finite element model of a transverse slice of a total hip reconstruction. We created models with a single large pore and models with multiple pores at levels of 2, 4, and 9%. The models were cyclically torque-loaded, causing macrocracks to appear in the cement mantle. In all models, we found that pores acted as microcrack initiators. However, pores could have both a detrimental and a beneficial effect on the macrocrack propagation in the cement mantle. Both effects were seen in the models with a single large pore and in the models with multiple pores. Pores would either accelerate, deviate, or decelerate the macrocrack propagation in the cement mantle. The effect of the pores depended on the location of the pores with respect to the stress intensities in the model, but was independent of the pore size or the level of porosity. The results may explain why the beneficial effect of vacuum mixing is difficult to demonstrate clinically. Stress intensities that are present in a cement mantle in an in vivo situation may overshadow the detrimental effect of a pore, while the beneficial effect may become more pronounced.

Bone Cements↗
PubMed2005

Sol-gel synthesis of bioactive glass scaffolds for tissue engineering: effect of surfactant type and concentration.

Well-defined structural characteristics are some of the exigencies that have to be attended when scaffolds for bone tissue cell culture are designed. A high porosity (70-90%) and a high specific surface area and an average pore size>150 microm will contribute to allow cell migration throughout the structure, adhesion, and proliferation. At the same time, the biodegradation of the material should occur in a proper rate. One way to reach a structure with these characteristics is to produce foams during sol-gel processing of bioactive glasses (system CaO--SiO2--P2O5). The addition of a surfactant in the sol-gel solution is necessary for foam formation and to maintain its stability until complete gelation occurs. This study presents the performance evaluation of two surfactants [sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES) and Tergitol] to determine optimum conditions for foaming ability and stability properties. The anionic surfactant SLES showed better results in terms of foam volume and its stability. Bioactive glass foams obtained with use of this surfactant presented a higher and interconnected porosity. The porosity of the scaffolds produced was 90%, and the macropore size ranged from 100 to 500 microm.

Biocompatible Materials↗
PubMed2006

A novel processing method for injection-molded polyether-urethane scaffolds. Part 1: processing.

A large-scale scaffold processing method with injection molding has been successfully developed. Water was used as afoaming agent for the new technique. NaCl was used as a porogen to achieve an open-cell structure. Organic solvents, which are common foaming agents for polyurethane, where not used. Toxic remains in the polymer were therefore prevented. Pore size and porosity was adjustable through process parameters. A parameter study showed that an increase in injection pressure, plasticize speed, cylinder, and mold temperature raised the mean pore diameter. The porosity also could be mended by the cylinder and mold temperature, in addition to NaCl concentration. It was possible to produce scaffolds with a porosity of 64 +/- 3%, a pore size distribution from 30-450 microm, and a mean pore diameter of 270 +/- 90 microm. The interconnective pores were found to lie between 5 and 58 microm.

Biocompatible Materials↗
PubMed2007

Highly porous 3D nanofiber scaffold using an electrospinning technique.

A successful 3D tissue-engineering scaffold must have a highly porous structure and good mechanical stability. High porosity and optimally designed pore size provide structural space for cell accommodation and migration and enable the exchange of nutrients between the scaffold and environment. Poly(epsilon-carprolactone) fibers were electrospun using an auxiliary electrode and chemical blowing agent (BA), and characterized according to porosity, pore size, and their mechanical properties. We also investigated the effect of the BA on the electrospinning processability. The growth characteristic of human dermal fibroblasts cells cultured in the webs showed the good adhesion with the blown web relative to a normal electrospun mat. The blown nanofiber web had good tensile properties and high porosity compared to a typical electrospun nanofiber scaffold.

Azo Compounds↗
PubMed2002

Spray-freeze-drying for protein powder preparation: particle characterization and a case study with trypsinogen stability.

This work investigates the use of spray freeze-drying (SFD) to produce protein loaded particles suitable for epidermal delivery. In the first part of the study, the effects of formulation and process conditions on particle properties are examined. Aqueous solutions of trehalose produce SFD particles in the size range 20-80 microm, with a smooth, textured surface, but having high internal porosity. The latter was visualized using SEM and a novel particle embedding and sectioning technique. Use of an annealing step during the freeze-drying cycle caused the particles to shrink, reducing hereby porosity and also the measured rate of moisture uptake into these amorphous particles. SFD pure mannitol was approximately 40% amorphous, but not hygroscopic. Incorporation of dextran 37,500 into a combined amorphous trehalose/mannitol formulation led to increased particle shrinkage and lower particle porosity on annealing. The model protein trypsinogen lost approximately 15% activity during SFD of solutions containing 50 mg/mL protein, but was only marginally aggregated (1.4%). It is suggested that trypsinogen forms an irreversible partially unfolded state or molten globule on SFD/rehydration. The pure protein was also partially inactivated without aggregation during atomization into air. Surprisingly, neither activity loss nor aggregation were detected on atomization of the protein solution into liquid nitrogen. Quench-freezing of small droplets may reverse the partial unfolding of trypsinogen occurring on atomization into air. The origin of the trypsinogen inactivation during SFD must therefore be the subsequent freeze-drying step of this multistep process. Isolated freeze drying of trypsinogen produces strong aggregation and equivalent inactivation. This result suggests that trypsinogen behaves differently during freeze drying from frozen droplets and from bulk solution in a vial. In the former case the protein forms an irreversible partially unfolded state, whereas in the latter case aggregates are formed. Trypsinogen inactivation during SFD could be completely prevented by the presence of trehalose in the formulation. Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) showed a high surface excess of the protein in the SFD particles, which was reduced on inclusion of Polysorbate 80, but not trehalose. Taken together, these results help to elucidate the complex destabilization behavior of trypsinogen during SFD.

Chromatography, Gel↗