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PubMed1987

Comparison of indirect calorimetric measurements of resting energy expenditure with a ventilated hood, face mask, and mouthpiece.

This study compared three techniques for indirect calorimetric measurement of resting energy expenditure: ventilated canopy, face mask, mouthpiece plus noseclips. A total of 18 healthy men and women underwent all three measurement techniques in three consecutive 20-min measurement periods in a Latin square design. No significant effects were found for either period or method with respect to oxygen consumption, respiratory exchange ratio, and caloric expenditure. Oxygen consumption was (mean +/- SD) 250 +/- 45, 251 +/- 47, and 254 +/- 49 mL/min for hood, mask, and mouthpiece, respectively (ns). The respiratory exchange ratio was lower for the hood (0.809 +/- 0.051) than mask (0.837 +/- 0.043) and mouthpiece (0.847 +/- 0.045) but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.07). Calculated caloric expenditure was 1.20 +/- 0.22, 1.21 +/- 0.22, and 1.23 +/- 0.23 kcal/min for hood, mask, and mouthpiece, respectively (ns). Thus, in healthy individuals similar results are obtained by the three methods and the face mask and mouthpiece are acceptable alternatives to the ventilated hood for estimation of resting energy expenditure.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Energy intake, energy expenditure, and smoking in relation to body fatness: the Zutphen Study.

In 1965 within the Zutphen Study information on several possible determinants of body fatness (eg, energy intake, energy expenditure, alcohol intake, coffee consumption, tea consumption, and smoking) was collected. Univariate analyses showed that for 525 men aged 45-64 y and free from cardiovascular diseases, indicators of body fatness were inversely related to the difference between energy intake and expenditure, physical activity per kilogram body weight, smoking, and coffee consumption. Alcohol intake was directly related to Quetelet index, and tea consumption was not related to indicators of body fatness. Inverse associations between indicators of body fatness and the difference between energy intake and expenditure, physical activity per kilogram body weight, and smoking were confirmed in multivariate analyses. The inverse association between body fatness and the difference between energy intake and expenditure may be due to the underestimation of energy intake by obese subjects. In lean people this association may be explained by a thermogenic effect of smoking.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1989

Comparison of energy expenditure by the doubly labeled water technique with energy intake, heart rate, and activity recording in man.

Average daily energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water technique (dlwEE) was compared in six subjects (aged 20-30 y) over 2 wk under usual living conditions; average food energy intake and energy expenditure estimated from individual diary records of physical activity. In addition, energy expenditure was estimated from 24-h heart rate recordings carried out on two randomly chosen days of the 2-wk period. The group means of the dlwEE were 1.94 +/- 0.24 (means +/- SD) times larger than resting metabolic rate (= 1.94 met) and nearly identical to the average daily energy intake (1.93 +/- 0.23 met). Energy expenditure estimated from the diaries of activity and from the 24-h heart rate recording varied between 1.67 and 2.24 met depending on the calculation procedure. The dlwEE (1.94 +/- 0.24 met) is much higher than that recently determined for sedentary people (1.25 met) and thus explains that young students may achieve body weight balance with a relatively high daily food energy intake.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Two-point vs multipoint sample collection for the analysis of energy expenditure by use of the doubly labeled water method.

Energy expenditure over a 2-wk period was determined by the doubly labeled water (2H2(18)O) method in nine adults. When daily samples were analyzed, energy expenditure was 2859 +/- 453 kcal/d (means +/- SD); when only the first and last time points were considered, the mean calculated energy expenditure was not significantly different (2947 +/- 430 kcal/d). An analysis of theoretical cases in which isotope flux is not constant indicates that the multipoint method can cause errors in the calculation of average isotope fluxes, but these are generally small. Simulations of the effect of analytical error indicate that increasing the number of replicates on two points reduces the impact of technical errors more effectively than does performing single analyses on multiple samples. It appears that generally there is no advantage to collecting frequent samples when the 2H2(18)O method is used to estimate energy expenditure in adult humans.

Body Water↗
PubMed1992

Energy expenditure under free-living conditions in normal-weight and overweight women.

Total energy expenditure under free-living conditions of 12 normal-weight and 26 overweight women was determined with the 2H2(18)O method. Overweight women tended to expend more energy (mean +/- SD, 11.20 +/- 1.79 MJ/d) than normal-weight women (9.46 +/- 0.87 MJ/d, P less than 0.005). Approximately half of this effect was explained by an increase in basal metabolic rate (BMR) in the overweight group compared with the normal-weight group (6.47 +/- 0.74 vs 5.68 +/- 0.39 MJ/d, respectively, P less than 0.005) and the other half by an increase in above-basal energy expenditure (4.73 +/- 1.49 vs 3.78 +/- 0.94 MJ/d, P less than 0.05). Total energy expenditure was approximately 1.7 times the BMR in both groups. After adjusting energy expenditure for weight or lean body mass by analysis of covariance, there was no significant difference between normal-weight and overweight groups. We conclude that most overweight subjects must consume more energy than lean subjects to maintain their excess weight, although some could maintain their obesity without eating more than lean subjects.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

A compilation of total daily energy expenditures and body weights in healthy adults.

Measurements of total energy expenditure (TEE) by the doubly labeled water method were compiled from 22 studies to identify the range of variation and significant determinants of energy requirements in healthy adults. The 126 male and 173 female subjects (aged 18-78 y) were separated into four groups: athletes, Pima Indians, people in developing countries, and others. The groups differed significantly (P < 0.001) with respect to TEE, TEE/BMR, TEE-BMR divided by weight, and TEE-BMR. Stepwise multiple regression demonstrated that fat-free mass (FFM) and age are significant variables that can explain 65% of the variation in TEE. These data demonstrate that total daily energy expenditure varies dramatically among healthy, free-living adults. The relationship between body fatness and nonbasal energy expenditure was negative at high energy outputs but considerable variation in body fatness was present among sedentary individuals, suggesting that a low rate of nonbasal energy expenditure is a permissive factor for obesity.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Fluoxetine increases resting energy expenditure and basal body temperature in humans.

Humans lose weight when administered fluoxetine, an inhibitor of serotonin reuptake by nerve terminals. To determine whether increased energy expenditure contributes to this weight loss we admitted 20 nondepressed obese women to a metabolic unit where they were randomly assigned to 3 wk of a 1.76-MJ/d formula diet and either 60 mg fluoxetine/d or a placebo. Resting energy expenditure of the control subjects fell below normal after 5.6 +/- 0.6 d of energy restriction, whereas that of the fluoxetine-treated subjects increased by 4.4 +/- 1.8% (P < 0.005) within 3 d of commencing treatment. This increased resting energy expenditure then reversed and fell below normal after 9.8 +/- 0.9 d of energy restriction. Basal body temperature of the control subjects decreased insignificantly during the period of energy restriction, but that of the fluoxetine-treated subjects increased by 0.28 +/- 0.10 degrees C (P < 0.05) within 3 d of commencing diet and drug treatment. Urinary norepinephrine excretion and the serum triiodothyronine concentration decreased equally in both groups. Despite identical energy intakes and equal nitrogen balance, the fluoxetine-treated subjects lost weight faster than the control subjects during the final week of energy restriction (P < 0.05). We propose that serotonin reuptake inhibition increases energy expenditure by increasing basal body temperature.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Influence of sex, seasonality, ethnicity, and geographic location on the components of total energy expenditure in young children: implications for energy requirements.

BACKGROUND: There are limited data on the influence of body composition, sex, seasonality, ethnicity, and geographic location on the components of energy expenditure in children. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to examine the determinants of total energy expenditure (TEE), resting energy expenditure (REE), and activity-related energy expenditure (AEE) in children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data from 232 children (4-10 y of age) from 4 ethnic groups (white American, African American, Guatemalan Mestizo, and Native American Mohawk) were examined. RESULTS: In 104 white children studied in Vermont and Alabama, TEE was significantly higher in spring than in fall, higher in boys than in girls, and higher in children in Vermont (all effects: approximately 0.42 MJ/d, P < 0.05). The significant effect of sex was explained through REE; the influences of season and location were explained through AEE. In all children, there was no effect of sex but a significant effect of ethnicity (P < 0.01) on TEE: a significant effect of sex (P < 0.01) and no effect of ethnicity (P = 0.16) on REE; and no effect of sex and a significant effect of ethnicity on AEE. The significant effects of ethnicity were due to lower values in Guatemalan children. TEE correlated most strongly with weight (r = 0.81) and fat-free mass (r = 0.79-0.81); REE with weight (r = 0.85) and fat-free mass (r = 0.80-0.87); and AEE with maximal oxygen consumption (r = 0.54), fat-free mass (r = 0.50), and fat mass (r = 0.49). CONCLUSIONS: 1) Season and location influenced TEE in children through their effects on AEE, 2) a higher REE in boys was consistent across all groups examined, 3) Guatemalan children had lower TEE due to a lower AEE, 4) body weight may be the best predictor of TEE, and 5) maximal oxygen consumption was the strongest marker of AEE.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed1998

Total energy expenditure and physical activity in prepubertal children: recent advances based on the application of the doubly labeled water method.

The prevalence of obesity in children has continued to increase despite a general increased awareness of health and fitness. Epidemiologic data show that the prevalence of obesity in children is approximately 25%, with a higher prevalence in some subgroups of the population. In addition, the incidence of obesity-related diseases is dramatically increasing in children. For example, the incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents has increased 10-fold over the past decade, and this increase is more pronounced in obese persons. The etiology of the development of childhood obesity and subsequent disease is poorly understood, but is likely to be explained by alterations in the regulation of energy balance between energy expenditure and energy intake. It is not known whether obesity is caused by an increase in energy intake relative to energy needs, a decrease in energy expenditure relative to energy needs, or the effect of both. This review will focus on recent studies that have attempted to elucidate the etiology of childhood obesity and have increased our understanding of the regulation of energy balance in prepubertal children by using the doubly labeled water method for estimating total energy expenditure and physical activity-related energy expenditure. This review serves as a brief summary and general update of recent reviews of this topic.

Body Water↗
PubMed2000

Use of infrared thermographic calorimetry to determine energy expenditure in preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Measurement of infant energy expenditure in the clinical setting is difficult and is rarely done. Both indirect and direct calorimetry require long measurement periods and frequent calibration. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to validate in infants a newly developed method of determining energy expenditure, infrared thermographic calorimetry (ITC), against an established method, respiratory indirect calorimetry (IC). ITC measures mean infant body surface temperature. ITC was used in conjunction with heat loss theory to calculate radiant, convective, evaporative, and conductive heat losses and thereby determine total energy expenditure. DESIGN: Ten healthy preterm infants were studied by obtaining concurrent ITC and IC measurements over a 3.5-5.5-h study period. Continuous IC measurements were compared with ITC measurements taken every 10 min during study periods. IC values were summed over 10-min intervals covering the 5 min before and 5 min after each ITC measurement, to allow comparisons between the 2 methods. RESULTS: Comparison of paired ITC and IC mean measurements for all 10 infants over the entire study period showed no significant difference between the 2 methods. However, individual paired IC and ITC values were significantly different for 7 of 10 infants. The overall mean difference between the 2 methods was 1.3%. CONCLUSIONS: ITC is an accurate, noninvasive method for measurement of heat loss and energy expenditure in healthy preterm infants, and therefore it may be a useful clinical and research tool.

Body Temperature↗
PubMed2000

Energy expenditure and free-living physical activity in black and white women: comparison before and after weight loss.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity is higher in black than in white women. Differences in energy economy and physical activity may contribute to this difference. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare free-living energy expenditure and physical activity in black and white women before and after weight loss. DESIGN: Participants were 18 white and 14 black women with body mass indexes (in kg/m(2)) between 27 and 30. Diet, without exercise, was used to achieve a weight loss of >/=10 kg and a body mass index <25. After 4 wk of energy balance in overweight and normal-weight states, body composition was assessed by using a 4-compartment model, sleeping and resting energy expenditures were assessed by using a chamber calorimeter, physiologic stress of exercise and exercise economy were measured by using standardized exercise tasks, and daily energy expenditure was assessed by using doubly labeled water. RESULTS: Weight loss averaged 12.8 kg. Sleeping and resting energy expenditures decreased in proportion to changes in body composition. Weight reduction significantly improved physiologic capacity for exercise in both groups of women, making it easier for them to be physically active. Black women had lower body composition-adjusted energy requirements than did white women-both before and after weight loss-during sleep (9% lower, 519 kJ/d; P < 0.001), at rest (14% lower, 879 kJ/d; P < 0.001), during exercise (6% lower; P < 0. 05), and as a daily total (9% lower, 862 kJ/d; P < 0.06). By contrast, free-living physical activity was similar between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Weight-reduced women had metabolic rates appropriate for their body sizes. Black women had lower resting and nonresting energy requirements in both overweight and normal-weight states than did white women and did not compensate with greater physical activity, potentially predisposing them to greater weight regain.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2002

Activity energy expenditure and adiposity among black adults in Nigeria and the United States.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity is higher among populations in industrialized than in developing countries. OBJECTIVE: We sought to compare the relations of activity energy expenditure (AEE) with adiposity and weight change in 2 black populations with different levels of obesity. DESIGN: Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and resting energy expenditure (REE) were measured and AEE was calculated in 58 Nigerian and 34 US black women and men. Weight was remeasured after > or = 1 y in a subset of participants. AEE adjusted for body size and TDEE adjusted for REE were calculated with the use of the residual regression method. The cross-sectional relations between percentage body fat and activity were modeled by using regression analysis, and longitudinal relations between weight change and adjusted energy expenditure variables were calculated. RESULTS: Women and men from the United States weighed more, had more body fat, and had higher levels of TDEE, REE, and AEE than did those from Nigeria. Cross-sectionally, AEE was negatively associated with adiposity after adjustment for body size and age (P < 0.001), regardless of site. Between 60% and 80% of the variance in adiposity was explained by AEE or TDEE. REE, AEE, and TDEE adjusted for body size and age were negatively correlated with weight change among Nigerian women but not men. CONCLUSIONS: The significant difference observed in mean adiposity between Nigerians and US blacks was not explained by differences in AEE. However, a low AEE was an important determinant of high percentages of body fat in black adults and was associated with increased weight gain in Nigerian women.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2002

Low physical activity reduces total energy expenditure in women with rheumatoid arthritis: implications for dietary intake recommendations.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) causes cachexia, a metabolic response characterized by loss of muscle mass and elevated resting energy expenditure (REE). However, energy expenditure in physical activity in subjects with RA is lower than that in healthy subjects. It is not known which effect predominates in regulating total energy expenditure (TEE), and thus whether the dietary energy requirements of subjects with RA are higher or lower than those of healthy subjects. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to determine TEE in women with RA by using the reference method of doubly labeled water ((2)H(2)(18)O). DESIGN: In this case-control study, we examined 20 women with RA and 20 healthy women who were matched for age and body mass index. RESULTS: The patients with RA were cachectic (their body cell mass was 14% lower than that of the controls, P < 0.001), but REE was not elevated, reflecting good disease control. Mean (+/- SD) TEE was 1344 kJ/d lower in the patients than in the controls (9133 +/- 1335 compared with 10 477 +/- 1992 kJ/d; P < 0.02). The energy expenditure in physical activity of the patients was 1034 kJ/d lower than that of the controls (P < 0.04), which accounted for 77% of the difference in TEE between the 2 groups. The physical activity level (TEE/REE) of the patients also tended to be lower than that of the controls (1.70 +/- 0.24 compared with 1.89 +/- 0.36; P < 0.07). CONCLUSION: A low physical activity level is the main determinant of lower-than-normal TEE, and thus energy requirements, in women with RA.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Physical activity but not energy expenditure is reduced in obese adolescents: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: The influence of physical activity on body weight in children and adolescents is controversial. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to test the hypothesis that the intensity and duration of physical activity differ between obese and normal-weight adolescents, with no difference in estimated energy expenditure. DESIGN: We compared physical activity in 18 (8 males, 10 females) obese [body mass index (in kg/m(2)) > 30] adolescents (14-19 y) with that in a matched, normal-weight (BMI < 27) control group. Total energy expenditure (TEE) was measured with the doubly labeled water method, and physical activity was measured simultaneously by accelerometry. The physical activity level was determined as the ratio of TEE to the resting metabolic rate (RMR) and activity energy expenditure as 0.9 TEE minus RMR. Accelerometry data included total physical activity (counts x min(-1) x d(-1)), accumulated and continuous duration of activity, and continuous 10-min periods of physical activity of moderate intensity. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in adjusted (analysis of covariance) TEE, RMR, or AEE between groups. The physical activity level was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the obese group. No sex x group interaction was observed. Differences in total physical activity (P < 0.001), accumulated time (P < 0.05), continuous time (P < 0.01), and continuous 10-min periods of physical activity of moderate intensity (P < 0.01) were observed between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Obese adolescents are less physically active than are normal-weight adolescents, but physical activity-related energy expenditure is not significantly different between groups. The data suggest that physical activity is not necessarily equivalent to the energy costs of activity.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Long-term changes in energy expenditure and body composition after massive weight loss induced by gastric bypass surgery.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the determinants of individual variability in body weight and fat loss after gastric bypass surgery or about the effects of massive weight loss induced by this surgery on energy requirements. OBJECTIVES: The objectives were to determine changes in energy expenditure and body composition with weight loss induced by gastric bypass surgery and to identify presurgery predictors of weight loss. DESIGN: Thirty extremely obese women and men with a mean (+/- SD) age of 39.0 +/- 9.6 y and a body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)) of 50.1 +/- 9.3 were tested longitudinally under weight-stable conditions before surgery and after weight loss and stabilization (14 +/- 2 mo). Total energy expenditure (TEE), resting energy expenditure (REE), body composition, and fasting leptin were measured. RESULTS: Subjects lost 53.2 +/- 22.2 kg body weight and had significant decreases in REE (-2.4 +/- 1.0 MJ/d; P < 0.001) and TEE (-3.6 +/- 2.5 MJ/d; P < 0.001). Changes in REE were predicted by changes in fat-free mass and fat mass. The average physical activity level (TEE/REE) was 1.61 at both baseline and follow-up (P = 0.98). Weight loss was predicted by baseline fat mass and BMI but not by any energy expenditure variable or leptin. Measured REE at follow-up was not significantly different from predicted REE. CONCLUSIONS: TEE and REE decreased by 25% on average after massive weight loss induced by gastric bypass surgery. REE changes were predicted by loss of body tissue; thus, there was no significant long-term change in energy efficiency that would independently promote weight regain.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Body movement and physical activity energy expenditure in children and adolescents: how to adjust for differences in body size and age.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity data in children and adolescents who differ in body size and age are influenced by whether physical activity is expressed in terms of body movement or energy expenditure. OBJECTIVE: We examined whether physical activity expressed as body movement (ie, accelerometer counts) differs from physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) as a function of body size and age. DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study in children [n = 26; (+/-SD) age: 9.6 +/- 0.3 y] and adolescents (n = 25; age: 17.6 +/- 1.5 y) in which body movement and total energy expenditure (TEE) were simultaneously measured with the use of accelerometry and the doubly labeled water method, respectively. PAEE was expressed as 1) unadjusted PAEE [TEE minus resting energy expenditure (REE); in MJ/d], 2) PAEE adjusted for body weight (BW) (PAEE. kg(-1). d(-1)), 3) PAEE adjusted for fat-free mass (FFM) (PAEE. kg FFM(-1). d(-1)), and 4) the physical activity level (PAL = TEE/REE). RESULTS: Body movement was significantly higher (P = 0.03) in children than in adolescents. Similarly, when PAEE was normalized for differences in BW or FFM, it was significantly higher in children than in adolescents (P = 0.03). In contrast, unadjusted PAEE and PAL were significantly higher in adolescents (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: PAEE should be normalized for BW or FFM for comparison of physical activity between children and adolescents who differ in body size and age. Adjusting PAEE for FFM removes the confounding effect of sex, and therefore FFM may be the most appropriate body-composition variable for normalization of PAEE. Unadjusted PAEE and PAL depend on body size.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure in girls from late childhood through midadolescence.

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal data on energy expenditure in children and adolescents are scarce. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in girls from late childhood through midadolescence. DESIGN: We measured total energy expenditure (TEE) by doubly labeled water, resting metabolic rate (RMR) by indirect calorimetry, body composition by 18O dilution, and time spent in activity by an activity diary in 28 initially nonobese girls at approximately 10, approximately 12, and approximately 15 y of age. Changes with age in TEE, RMR, and activity energy expenditure (AEE), both in absolute terms and in adjusted analyses, and in physical activity level (PAL) and time spent sleeping, being sedentary, and in moderate and vigorous activity were evaluated by mixed-model repeated-measures analyses. RESULTS: Absolute TEE and AEE increased significantly from age 10 to age 15 y (P < 0.0001 for both). Absolute RMR at ages 12 and 15 y did not differ significantly, despite significant increases in fat-free mass and fat mass between the visits. PAL was significantly higher (P < 0.0001) at age 15 y than at age 10 or 12 y, whereas time spent being sedentary increased significantly from age 10 to age 15 y (P < 0.001), and AEE adjusted for fat-free mass appeared to decrease over the same interval. CONCLUSION: Conclusions drawn regarding changes with age in physical activity depend on the measure of physical activity assessed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Energy expenditure in rats maintained with intravenous or intragastric infusion of total parenteral nutrition solutions containing medium- or long-chain triglyceride emulsions.

Energy expenditure was determined in male Fischer 344 rats (235-246 g) fed by intravenous (IV) or intragastric (IG) infusion with total parenteral nutrition solutions providing 65% of nonprotein energy as fat from long-chain triglyceride (LCT) or a 3:1 admixture of medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) and LCT emulsions. Respiratory gas exchange and somatomotor activity were assessed continuously for 24 h during d 5 and 11 of infusion feeding. The MCT infusion resulted in one-third the weight gain noted with LCT infusion (MCT, 10 +/- 2 g/14 d; LCT, 32 +/- 4 g/14 d; P less than 0.0001). Insulin concentration was 60% higher with IV than with IG infusion and approximately 100% higher with IV-MCT than with IG-MCT or LCT infusion (P less than 0.05). Rats receiving IV infusion of MCT displayed similar levels of motor activity but 8-13% greater daily energy expenditure (kJ.kg-0.75.kJ intake-1) than rats receiving IG-MCT or LCT infusion (P less than 0.05). The MCT infusion also resulted in an elevation in respiratory quotient after cessation of nutrient infusion (MCT, 0.87-0.92; LCT, 0.83-0.85; P less than 0.05). Total and resting energy expenditure decreased approximately 13% from 5 to 11 d of infusion feeding. The lower weight gain and greater energy expenditure seen with MCT- compared with LCT-supplemented total parenteral nutrition may be mediated by higher insulin concentrations.

Animals↗