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PubMed2005

Clustering gene expression data based on predicted differential effects of GV interaction.

Microarray has become a popular biotechnology in biological and medical research. However, systematic and stochastic variabilities in microarray data are expected and unavoidable, resulting in the problem that the raw measurements have inherent "noise" within microarray experiments. Currently, logarithmic ratios are usually analyzed by various clustering methods directly, which may introduce bias interpretation in identifying groups of genes or samples. In this paper, a statistical method based on mixed model approaches was proposed for microarray data cluster analysis. The underlying rationale of this method is to partition the observed total gene expression level into various variations caused by different factors using an ANOVA model, and to predict the differential effects of GV (gene by variety) interaction using the adjusted unbiased prediction (AUP) method. The predicted GV interaction effects can then be used as the inputs of cluster analysis. We illustrated the application of our method with a gene expression dataset and elucidated the utility of our approach using an external validation.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2002

Three novel sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) 3 isoforms. Expression, regulation, and function of the membranes of the SERCA3 family.

Sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases (SERCAs) pump Ca2+ into the endoplasmic reticulum. Recently, three human SERCA3 (h3a-c) proteins and a previously unknown rat SERCA3 (r3b/c) mRNA have been described. Here, we (i) document two novel human SERCA3 splice variants h3d and h3e, (ii) provide data for the expression and mechanisms regulating the expression of all known SERCA3 variants (r3a, r3b/c, and h3a-e), and (iii) show functional characteristics of the SERCA3 isoforms. h3d and h3e are issued from the insertion of an additional penultimate exon 22 resulting in different carboxyl termini for these variants. Distinct distribution patterns of the SERCA3 gene products were observed in a series of cell lines of hematopoietic, epithelial, embryonic origin, and several cancerous types, as well as in panels of rat and human tissues. Hypertension and protein kinase C, calcineurin, or retinoic acid receptor signaling pathways were found to differently control rat and human splice variant expression, respectively. Stable overexpression of each variant was performed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells, and the SERCA3 isoforms were fully characterized. All SERCA3 isoforms were found to pump Ca2+ with similar affinities. However, they modulated the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]c) and the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ content ([Ca2+]er) in different manners. A newly generated polyclonal antibody and a pan-SERCA3 antibody proved the endogenous expression of the three novel SERCA3 proteins, h3d, h3e, and r3b/c. All these data suggest that the SERCA3 gene products have a more widespread role in cellular Ca2+ signaling than previously appreciated.

Alternative Splicing↗

PubMed1986

Lymphoid cell subsets in normal human small intestine.

UNLABELLED: Nineteen specimens of normal tissue were obtained from the duodenum, upper jejunum and terminal ileum. Specimens were fixed with periodate-lysine-paraformaldehyde and then frozen sections were made. Lymphoid cell subsets were identified by indirect immunoperoxidase staining using mouse anti-human monoclonal antibodies. RESULTS: There was a remarkable variation in the distribution of positive cells among individuals and even within single sections. Lymphoid cell subsets of the three parts of the small intestine were almost identical except for the difference in IgA subclasses of IgA-containing cells. IgA1 predominated over IgA2 in the jejunum while IgA2 predominated over IgA1 in the ileum. The subsets in the lamina propria (LP) and in the epithelium were clearly distinct; Leu 3+ (helper/inducer T) predominated in LP while Leu 2+ (suppressor/cytotoxic T) predominated in the epithelium and no Ig-containing cells were found in the epithelium. In LP the mean ratio of Leu 1+ (pan T):IgA (IgA1 + IgA2) containing cells: IgM: IgG: IgD: IgE: HNK-1+ was 48.9: 36.6: 9.0: 1.8: 1.0: 0.3: 2.4. The staining patterns of HLA-DR+ and Leu 10+ were similar; dense in the top in LP of the villi. In some individuals the apical portion of epithelial cells was stained by anti-HLA-DR. A few positive cells were observed in only two out of 19 cases by anti IL-2R.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Reduced polymorphism in the chimpanzee semen coagulating protein, semenogelin I.

The semen of many primate species coagulates into a mating plug believed to prevent the sperm of subsequent mating events from accessing the ova. The texture of the coagulum varies among species: from a semisoft mass in humans to a firm plug in chimpanzees. In humans, a component of the coagulum, semenogelin I, also inhibits sperm motility. We tested the hypothesis that polymorphism and divergence at semenogelin I differ among hominoid species with different mating systems. Sequence data for the semenogelin I locus were obtained from 12 humans, 10 chimpanzees, 7 gorillas, and 1 bonobo. Mitochondrial D-loop data were collected from a subset of individuals to assess levels of variation at an unlinked locus. HKA tests using D-loop sequence data revealed a significant reduction of polymorphism at semenogelin I in chimpanzees, consistent with predictions of a selective sweep at this locus. This result was supported by independent HKA tests using polymorphism data from a putatively neutral locus from the literature. Humans show a similar trend toward reduced polymorphism, although HKA tests were only marginally significant. Gorilla sequence data show evidence of functional loss at the semenogelin I locus, indicated by stop codons within the putative open reading frame as well as high levels of polymorphism. Elevated Ka/Ks ratios within the Pan-Homo clade suggest a history of positive selection at semenogelin I. Our results suggest that there is a positive relationship between the intensity of sperm competition in a species and the strength of positive Darwinian selection on the seminal protein semenogelin I.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Large differences between LINE-1 amplification rates in the human and chimpanzee lineages.

The genomic evolution and causes of phenotypic variation among humans and great apes remain largely unknown, although the phylogenetic relationships among them have been extensively explored. Previous studies that focus on differences at the amino acid and nucleotide sequence levels have revealed a high degree of similarity between humans and chimpanzees, suggesting that other types of genomic change may have contributed to the relatively large phenotypic differences between them. For example, the activity of long interspersed element 1 (LINE-1) retrotransposons may impose significant changes on genomic structure and function and, consequently, on phenotype. Here we investigate the relative rates of LINE-1 amplification in the lineages leading to humans, bonobos (Pan paniscus), and chimpanzees (P. troglodytes). Our data indicate that LINE-1 insertions have accumulated at significantly greater rates in bonobos and chimpanzees than in humans, provide insights into the timing of major LINE-1 amplification events during great ape evolution, and identify a Pan-specific LINE-1 subfamily.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Does learning affect the structure of vocalizations in chimpanzees?

We recorded 'pant-hoot' vocalizations from male chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, housed in two captive facilities in the U.S.A., Lion Country Safari and North Carolina Zoological Park. Acoustic analysis revealed significant differences between the two groups in the temporal patterning of the calls. Because the captive males within each group are from diverse origins, within-group similarity in pant-hoot structure could not have resulted from genetic similarity of the callers. In addition, there were no obvious differences in housing conditions that could have caused the between-group differences. Instead, the results suggest that the calls in each group converged in structure as a consequence of vocal learning. Within-group variation in call structure of the captive groups was similar to that found in a group of wild Ugandan chimpanzees (Kanyawara study group, Kibale National Park), suggesting the presence of species-specific constraints on this call within which different populations can converge on local variants. In addition, an acoustically novel pant-hoot variant that was introduced by one male to the Lion County Safari colony spread to five other males in the same colony. This suggests that chimpanzees may also be able to modify the frequency parameters of their calls through learning. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2025

The downregulation of ubiquitin-specific peptidase 2 indicates a poor prognosis and promotes the progression of gastric cancer through focal adhesion and ECM pathway signaling.

Gastric cancer ranks among the most prevalent forms of cancer worldwide. Recent rapid advancements in diagnostic methods, neoadjuvant or adjuvant therapies, and surgical procedures have significantly improved survival rates for patients with gastric cancer. Nonetheless, these benefits have not yet reached the majority of individuals affected. Previous research has indicated that USP2, a component of the ubiquitin system, plays a crucial role in reshaping the proteome and enhancing the prognosis of diseases. However, the current understanding of USP2 expression and the associated pathways in gastric cancer remains unclear. The differential expression of USP2 was examined in pan-cancer, with a particular focus on its expression in gastric cancer cells and patients. Additionally, the impact of USP2 on the proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of gastric cancer cells was explored via CCK8, transwell, and invasion assays. RNA sequencing was employed to investigate pathways associated with USP2, and RT-qPCR and western blotting were utilized to confirm the expression of related pathway genes and proteins. The prognostic value of a model derived from USP2 expression was assessed and validated. USP2 expression was significantly reduced in gastric cancer cells and patient samples (p < 0.05). Patients with low USP2 expression are primarily associated with genetic variations, neoantigen loads, microsatellite instability (MSI) scores, and immune cell infiltration (p < 0.05). The overexpression of USP2 suppresses proliferation, migration, and cell cycle progression while enhancing apoptosis in GC cells. Concurrently, we identified 865 genes whose expression was downregulated. KEGG and GSEA enrichment analyses revealed significant suppression of the focal adhesion and ECM receptor interaction pathways following USP2 overexpression. A genomic model derived from USP2 was constructed and validated for its reliability in predicting patient prognosis. The expression of USP2 was positively correlated with sensitivity to small-molecule drugs, including entinostat, SB590885, and PF-562,271. USP2 acts as a negative regulator of gastric cancer progression. Consequently, USP2 has the potential to be utilized as a therapeutic target to improve the clinical prognosis and survival rates of patients.

Humans↗

PubMed1990

Uniform high frequency expression of autoantibody-associated crossreactive idiotypes in the primary B cell follicles of human fetal spleen.

At 23 wk of gestation, the fetal spleen contains follicles of lymphocytes that coexpress B cell differentiation antigens, surface Ig, and the 67-kD pan-T lymphocyte antigen, CD5 (Leu-1). Such cells are thought to represent the normal equivalent cells of B chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). This B cell leukemia is distinctive in that high proportions of patients have leukemic cells that express sIg bearing one or more crossreactive idiotypes (CRIs) that commonly are found on IgM autoantibodies. We performed immunohistochemical studies on fetal spleen at 23 wk of gestation using a panel of mAbs specific for autoantibody-associated CRIs. We find that high proportions (5-17%) of the lymphocytes within each follicle react with any one of the anti-CRI mAbs. Furthermore, there is little variation between primary follicles in the proportions of cells that express a particular CRI. Using a cocktail of four anti-CRI mAbs, we detect autoantibody-associated CRIs on approximately one-third of the lymphocytes within each of the primary B cell follicles. These data indicate that the many of the Igs produced during early B cell development may be structurally related to IgM autoantibodies and to Ig expressed in CLL and related CD5 B cell malignancies. Furthermore, these studies suggest that the repertoire of Ig V genes expressed in each primary B cell follicle may be representative of the total restricted Ig V gene repertoire expressed during early B cell ontogeny.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed2026

FM-GPT: Bayesian fine mapping for phenome-wide transcriptome-wide association studies.

Transcriptome-wide association studies (TWAS) integrate genome wide association studies with expression quantitative trait locus reference panels to identify genes associated with traits of interest. However, linkage disequilibrium and correlated gene expression can induce spurious TWAS signals, motivating fine mapping methods to prioritize putatively causal genes within associated loci. The rapid growth of large-scale phenomic resources (e.g. electronic health records (EHRs)) has shifted genetic studies from single-trait analyses to phenome-wide investigations that jointly evaluate many closely related phenotypes. We introduce FM-GPT (Fine-mapping of causal Genes for Phenome-wide Transcriptome-wide association studies), a novel Bayesian fine mapping method for prioritizing causal genes across multiple correlated phenotypes with potentially mixed outcome types (e.g., binary, count or continuous) in phenome-wide TWAS. FM-GPT performs gene-guided dimension reduction of the phenotypes and reveals pleiotropic or phenotype-specific effects of the identified genes. In simulations, FM-GPT identified true causal genes more accurately than other fine mapping methods while controlling false positives. We applied FM-GPT to two applications using data from UK Biobank: a brain-wide genetic analysis of MRI data derived regional cortical thickness measures and a phenome-wide genetic analysis of clinical phenotypes derived from EHR data. FM-GPT greatly narrowed down the set size of putatively causal genes and identified: 1. genes with pleiotropic effects on regional cortical thickness across the cerebral cortex, including five genes BCAS3, LRRC37A, NOS2P3, ARL17B and UBB on chromosome 17 regulating neuronal morphology and cortical organization; and 2. genes that influence multiple medical conditions across the circulatory, metabolic, digestive, respiratory and genitourinary systems, revealing two major axes of variation among these conditions that point to a potential trade-off in gene regulation between immune and metabolic functions. These results highlight FM-GPT's power to disentangle complex gene-phenotype relationships in large-scale phenome-wide studies, uncovering shared biological mechanisms across diverse human traits and advancing translational and comorbidity research.

Bayesian fine mapping↗

PubMed1989

Variation in lymphoproliferative responses during recrudescent orofacial herpes simplex virus infections.

Sixty-five patients with recrudescent orofacial herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections all had circulating HSV-specific antibody measured by ELISA and cell-mediated immunity (CMI) to HSV by in vitro lymphoproliferation. Thirteen control subjects with no history of HSV were negative for both tests. Thirty-three patients, repeatedly investigated during 6 to 38 months, had between 1 and 8 recrudescences each. Lymphoproliferative responses to HSV were low during recrudescence, rose to a peak a few weeks later and then declined to a positive background level. However, ELISA titres and lymphoproliferative responses to concanavalin A were high throughout, and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subset numbers measured by fluorescent flow cytometry remained within normal limits. During HSV lesions, depressed lymphoproliferation to HSV was abrogated by removal of CD8+ T cells from PBMC either by using a panning technique (nine patients) or by cell sorting (three patients). Reconstitution of the CD8-depleted population suppressed the lymphoproliferative response to HSV. Depletion of CD8+ T cells did not affect lymphoproliferation to HSV outwith recrudescence (four patients), nor lymphoproliferative responses to another antigen (PPD; five patients) during recrudescence. Thus, reduced lymphoproliferation to HSV during recrudescence may be due to HSV-specific CD8+ suppressor T lymphocyte function, rather than lack of HSV-responsive lymphocytes. This may result in depression of normal CMI responses to the virus during an asymptomatic recurrence allowing recrudescent lesions to develop.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

The epidemiology of dementia: GMS-AGECAT studies of prevalence and incidence, including studies in progress.

The paper reviews the main studies using the AGECAT computerised diagnostic system for the diagnosis of dementia in community studies of prevalence and incidence. It is suggested that variations in reported rates may be due to the use of unstandardised methods, and the paper reviews the oldest established standardised interview: the Geriatric Mental State. The AGECAT system is outlined, and the studies of its diagnostic validity indicated. Arguments are presented against the inclusion of cognitive tests in such instruments, and for the critical evaluation of the concepts of mild dementia. The use of AGECAT in the US/UK Diagnostic Project, and in the Liverpool study of Continuing Health in the Community is described. In addition, preliminary information is given on the Liverpool ALPHA study, the MRC UK multi-centre study, studies organised by the Pan American Health Organisation (Argentina, Chile, Cuba), the Eurodem concerted action (based in Rotterdam) and the WHO multi-site studies. Individual studies in Spain and Portugal are also discussed.

Aged↗

PubMed1962

Studies on the metabolism of Shigella. IV. Nutritional requirements of Shigella flexneri serotype 3.

Pan, Sylvia F. (University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.), Robert B. Yee, and Horace M. Gezon. Studies on the metabolism of Shigella. IV. Nutritional requirements of Shigella flexneri serotype 3. J. Bacteriol. 83:61-65. 1962.-A study of the nutritional requirements of five strains of Shigella flexneri serotype 3 was carried out. Four of the strains could be cultured in a synthetic medium composed of a mineral salts glucose base, NH(4)H(2)PO(4) or an amino acid as the nitrogen source, and nicotinamide; the fifth one required the presence of both NH(4)H(2)PO(4) and an amino acid in the medium. Variation among the former strains in their nitrogen and vitamin requirements was observed. The least fastidious one produced maximal growth using the simple ammonium salt as its source of nitrogen and did not require the addition of nicotinamide. Two strains were moderately fastidious, producing better growth within 24 hr in the presence of l-aspartic acid instead of NH(4)H(2)PO(4), and requiring nicotinamide as an accessory growth factor. The fourth strain was extremely fastidious, growing poorly or not at all in the synthetic medium. Incubation of large inocula of the fastidious strain in synthetic medium and over a prolonged period resulted in adaptation of the organism to the medium. Some of the adapted cultures grew readily in the presence of NH(4)H(2)PO(4) and did not require nicotinamide.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed1995

Polymorphism, monomorphism, and sequences in conserved microsatellites in primate species.

Dimeric short tandem repeats are a source of highly polymorphic markers in the mammalian genome. Genetic variation at these hypervariable loci is extensively used for linkage analysis, for the identification of individuals, and may be useful for interpopulation and interspecies studies. In this paper, we analyze the variability and the sequences of a segment including three microsatellites, first described in man, in several species of primates (chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon, and macaque) using the heterologous primers (man primers). This region is located on the human chromosome 6p, near the tumor necrosis factor genes, in the major histocompatibility complex. The fact that these primers work in all species studied indicates that they are conserved throughout the different lineages of the two superfamilies, the Hominoidea and the Cercopithecidea, represented by the macaques. However, the intervening sequence displays intraspecific and interspecific variability. The sites of base substitutions and the insertion/deletion events are not evenly distributed within this region. The data suggest that it is necessary to have a minimal number of repeats to increase the rate of mutation sufficiently to allow the development of polymorphism. In some species, the microsatellites present single base variations which reduce the number of contiguous repeats, thus apparently slowing the rate of additional slippage events. Species with such variations or a low number of repeats are monomorphic. These microsatellite sequences are informative in the comparison of closely related species and reflect the phylogeny of the Old World monkeys, apes, and man.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

[Biotoxicology and biodynamics of silica nanoparticle].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the toxicology and biodynamics of silica nanoparticle. METHODS: The silica nanoparticles were injected into mice through tail vein, and the mice were amphimixised, the urine was collected in different time, variations of pathology in organs and tissues of the mice were detected. At the same time, the silica nanoparticles' distribution in the tissues was observed through electron microscope. RESULTS: The silica nanoparticles were detected in all tissues and urine of the mice. The injected mice can reproduce as normal. CONCLUSION: The silica nanoparticles do not have toxicity and can be used in vivo.

Animals↗

PubMed1979

Quantitative changes in astrocytes after portacaval shunting in chimpanzees and in man with normal liver parenchyma.

Chimpanzees without liver cell damage, but subjected to portacaval anastomosis, showed behavioral changes that were accompanied by "Alzheimer II" astrocyte hyperplasia and nuclear enlargement. These findings were similar to those in a human patient with encephalopathy, secondary to a portacaval shunt, whose liver was normal. Controlled quantitative study of astrocytic hyperplasia in different anatomic regions showed the hyperplasia to involve the gray matter with only moderate topographic variation. Individual degrees of hyperplasia somewhat paralleled the severity of clinical symptoms and ammonia levels; no clear-cut relationship with time after shunting could be established. Portacaval shunt encephalopathy in chimpanzees greatly resembles that in man and, thus, lends itself to more detailed experimental analysis.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

In vitro micronucleus scoring by flow cytometry: differential staining of micronuclei versus apoptotic and necrotic chromatin enhances assay reliability.

The in vitro micronucleus test has received considerable attention in recent years for its use in drug safety assessment and toxicological research. The less tedious nature of the assay relative to chromosome aberration analyses is a driving force, and explains why many chemical and drug safety programs have adopted the endpoint. Development of a high-throughput micronucleus scoring system would further enhance the utility of the assay for lead optimization and other early drug development work. Although several variations of a flow cytometric (FCM) method for scoring cell-culture-derived micronuclei (MN) have been described in the literature, they have been unable to distinguish true MN from apoptotic and necrotic chromatin (Nüsse M and Marx K 1997: Mutat Res 392: 109-115). Here, we report advances to this methodology whereby a sequential staining procedure is used to differentially label these types of sub-2n particles. With the use of ethidium monoazide (EMA), the chromatin of dead and dying cells is labeled. After a photoactivation step that covalently binds EMA to chromatin, cytoplasmic membranes are digested and resulting lysates are incubated with RNase plus a pan-nucleic acid dye (SYTOX Green). This process provides a suspension of free nuclei and sub-2n particles that are labeled with either SYTOX or SYTOX and EMA. Preliminary studies with heat-shocked L5178Y mouse cells demonstrated that EMA stains necrotic and mid- through late-stage apoptotic cells. Importantly, the sequential labeling procedure provided reliable micronucleus enumeration, even when cultures contained high percentages of dead cells. Subsequently, experiments with the following diverse genotoxicants were performed: hydroxyurea, methyl methanesulfonate, benzo[a]pyrene, etoposide, cyclophosphamide, and vinblastine. Additionally, the nongenotoxicants sucrose, tributyltin methoxide, and dexamethasone were tested up to 5 mg/ml, or to cytotoxic concentrations. FCM data were found to correspond closely with microscopy-based measurements. Collectively, these data suggest that this sequential EMA/SYTOX staining procedure provides reliable, high-throughput enumeration of in vitro MN.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Size and scaling in the mandible of living and extinct apes.

The purpose of this study is to fill a gap in our knowledge of dietary and allometric determinants of masticatory function and mandibular morphology in major catarrhine clades. To extend the implications of previous work on variation in mandibular form and function in other primates, a scaling analysis was performed on 20 extinct and 7 living non-cercopithecoid catarrhines or 'dental apes'. Results of allometric comparisons indicate that for a given jaw length, larger apes exhibit significantly more robust corpora and symphyses than smaller forms. This appears linked to size-related increases in dietary toughness and/or hardness, which in turn causes elevated mandibular loads and/or greater repetitive loading during unilateral mastication. Larger-bodied dental apes also display more curved symphyses, which also explains the positive allometry of symphysis width and height. In apes, proconsulids often evince more robust jaws while all hylobatids, Pan and Dryopithecus laietanus possess more gracile cross sections. In propliopithecids, Aegyptopithecus is always more robust than Propliopithecus. In proconsulids, Rangwapithecus and Micropithecus commonly exhibit more robust jaws whereas Dendropithecus and especially Simiolus are more gracile. Most of the larger taxa are folivorous and/or hard-object frugivorous pongids with relatively larger dentaries. Though apes have relatively wider corpora than cercopithecines due to greater axial twisting of the corpora during chewing, they are otherwise alike in robusticity levels. Smaller apes are similar to cercopithecines in evincing a relatively high degree of symphyseal curvature, while larger taxa are like colobines in having less curvature. Larger pongids resemble or even exceed colobine jaw proportions and thus appear to converge on colobines in terms of the mechanical properties of their diets.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Expression of the rat carboxypeptidase-E gene in neuroendocrine and nonneuroendocrine cell lines.

To identify cis-acting elements involved with the expression of the rat carboxypeptidase-E (CPE) gene, constructs containing various regions of the 5'-flanking region of the CPE gene attached to the luciferase reporter gene were transiently expressed in cell lines derived from pituitary (AtT-20 and GH4C1), liver (SK-HEP-1), and kidney (HEK293 and COS1). Regions of the CPE gene spanning the major transcription initiation site (-12 to 47) are sufficient for low levels of transcription. Activity is enhanced 3- to 15-fold by sequences present between -12 and -395 in all cell lines examined. Sequences between -395 and -3081 influenced transcription activity up to 5-fold in some, but not all, cell lines. There was no correlation between the transcription activities of the various constructs and the level of endogenous CPE mRNA in the cell lines, indicating that the tissue-specific elements responsible for the large variations in endogenous CPE mRNA levels are not present within -3081 to 47. The region between -395 and 45 was examined in greater detail using transient expression assays and DNase-I protection analysis. Transcription activity is enhanced in GH4C1 and HEK293 cells by sequence present between -12 and -84; this region contains a potential GC box, which binds factors present in GH4C1 nuclear extracts. Other regions between -340 and 80 that bind proteins in the GH4C1 nuclear extracts include the major transcription initiation site, which has homology to the initiator sequence; the pituitary-specific transcription initiation sites (-101 and -105); and sequences with homology to NF-1, Pan-1, simian virus-40 enhancer core, and AP-2-binding sites. Taken together, these results suggest that basal expression of the CPE gene from its major transcription initiation site, which does not contain an up-stream TATA box, is primarily under the control of an initiator-like element together with an upstream GC box.

Animals↗