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PubMed2005

Biased language use in stereotype maintenance: the role of encoding and goals.

In 4 studies, the authors investigated the relative impact of biased encoding of information and communication goals on biased language use. A category label (linguistic expectancy bias, Study 1) or a group label (linguistic intergroup bias, Study 2) was presented either before or after a story that participants were asked to communicate. Biased language use only emerged when participants learned about the group membership of the actor or the category label before hearing the story. However, communication goals had an effect on language use at the retrieval stage, independent of encoding (Studies 3 and 4). Although communication goal effects seemed to overwhelm encoding effects, encoding still influenced language use under externally imposed time pressure (Study 3) and self-imposed time constraints (Study 4). This research reaffirms the importance of both cognitive and communicative processes in stereotype maintenance and highlights the conditions under which they each operate.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Hierarchical schemas and goals in the control of sequential behavior.

Traditional accounts of sequential behavior assume that schemas and goals play a causal role in the control of behavior. In contrast, M. Botvinick and D. C. Plaut argued that, at least in routine behavior, schemas and goals are epiphenomenal. The authors evaluate the Botvinick and Plaut account by contrasting the simple recurrent network model of Botvinick and Plaut with their own more traditional hierarchically structured interactive activation model (R. P. Cooper & T. Shallice, 2000). The authors present a range of arguments and additional simulations that demonstrate theoretical and empirical difficulties for both Botvinick and Plaut's model and their theoretical position. The authors conclude that explicit hierarchically organized and causally efficacious schema and goal representations are required to provide an adequate account of the flexibility of sequential behavior.

Cognition↗
PubMed2006

Local dopamine production in the dorsal striatum restores goal-directed behavior in dopamine-deficient mice.

To determine whether dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum is sufficient for performance of goal-directed behaviors, local dopamine production was restored in the dorsal striatum of dopamine-deficient (DD) mice through viral-mediated gene therapy. Virally rescued DD (vrDD) mice were tested for learning of an appetitive T-maze task designed to measure goal-directed behavior. The results indicate that in contrast with the performance of DD mice that have dysregulated dopamine signaling, vrDD mice were able to perform the T-maze task and reverse their behavior as well as sham-operated control mice. The authors conclude that finely tuned dopaminergic signaling within the dorsal striatum is sufficient for performance of goal-directed behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Dealing with negative social exchanges in later life: coping responses, goals, and effectiveness.

Negative exchanges have been shown to detract from psychological well-being in later life, but little research has investigated how older adults respond to such exchanges. The authors examined older adults' coping responses, goals, and effectiveness following a specific negative social exchange. The findings revealed that participants' coping responses and the effectiveness of these responses varied as a function of their coping goals. The results underscore the importance of considering older adults' coping responses and goals when evaluating factors that affect the impact of negative social exchanges on well-being in later life.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

Adult age differences in the effects of goals on self-regulated sentence processing.

The authors examined age differences in adults' allocation of effort when reading text for either high levels of recall accuracy or high levels of efficiency. Participants read a series of sentences, making judgments of learning before recall. Older adults showed less sensitivity than the young to the accuracy goal in both reading time allocation and memory performance. Memory accuracy and differential allocation of effort to unlearned items were age equivalent, so age differences in goal adherence were not attributable to metacognitive factors. However, comparison with data from a control reading task without monitoring showed that learning gains among older adults across trial were reduced relative to those of the young by memory monitoring, suggesting that monitoring may be resource consuming for older learners. Age differences in the responsiveness to (information-acquisition) goals could be accounted for, in part, by independent contributions from working memory and memory self-efficacy. Our data suggest that both processing capacity ("what you have") and beliefs ("knowing you can do it") can contribute to individual differences in engaging resources ("what you do") to effectively learn novel content from text.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

College student alcohol use in context: the utility of goal constructs.

Alcohol use occurs in the context of multiple goals that college students develop, pursue, and modify in their transition to adulthood. Consequently, the assessment of goal constructs provides a valuable tool for understanding the developmental context of college drinking. Conceptualizing student alcohol misuse in terms of its effects on valued goals has a number of advantages for understanding personality risk and protective factors, clarifying the contributions of social and environmental influences, and developing motivation-based interventions.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Measuring practitioners' beliefs, goals, and practices in psychiatric rehabilitation.

This article reports on a scale to measure the psychiatric rehabilitation beliefs, goals, and practices of staff who provide services to consumers. The scale's reliability, validity, and factor structure are presented based upon 469 staff members and 191 people in rehabilitation. The scale appears to be a stable measure of staff members' knowledge of modern psychiatric rehabilitation beliefs, goals, and practices as elaborated by the field's leadership. It also appears to provide a valid measure of staff members' actual practice patterns as they relate to the consumer outcomes of empowerment, quality of life, independent living, and competitive employment. Consumers, program administrators, educators, researchers, and practitioners may find the scale useful as a measure of some of the beliefs, goals, and practices that currently define modern psychiatric rehabilitation.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Virtual lesions of the anterior intraparietal area disrupt goal-dependent on-line adjustments of grasp.

Adaptive motor behavior requires efficient error detection and correction. The posterior parietal cortex is critical for on-line control of reach-to-grasp movements. Here we show a causal relationship between disruption of cortical activity within the anterior intraparietal sulcus (aIPS) by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and disruption of goal-directed prehensile actions (either grip size or forearm rotation, depending on the task goal, with reaching preserved in either case). Deficits were elicited by applying TMS within 65 ms after object perturbation, which attributes a rapid control process on the basis of visual feedback to aIPS. No aperture deficits were produced when TMS was applied to a more caudal region within the intraparietal sulcus, to the parieto-occipital complex (putative V6, V6A) or to the hand area of primary motor cortex. We contend that aIPS is critical for dynamic error detection during goal-dependent reach-to-grasp action that is visually guided.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Human processes of control: tracing the goals and strategies of control room teams.

This study utilized a process tracing methodology to analyse the goals and strategies of control room teams in dealing with an unpredicted plant disturbance. The human processes of control used by operators and their supervisors, and interactions between them, were analysed during phases of detection, diagnosis, and control of a small plant leak. Five control room teams were videotaped tackling this simulated scenario on a full-scale simulator. The results found substantial differences both within and between teams in how the goals of monitoring and implementing procedures during the detection phase, and problem-solving and plant control during the diagnosis phase were achieved. The temporal patterning of the activities associated with these goals revealed that the teams used different strategies. The training implications of these findings are discussed, in particular with respect to the control room supervisor who had a pivotal role.

Cognition↗
PubMed2006

Goal orientations and moral identity as predictors of prosocial and antisocial functioning in male association football players.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of task and ego goal orientation and moral identity on prosocial and antisocial judgement and behaviour in football. The interaction between task and ego orientation in predicting these variables was also examined. Participants were 210 adult male footballers (age 25 +/- 6 years) competing at recreational (n = 133) and semi-professional (n = 77) levels. They completed questionnaires measuring task and ego goal orientation, the importance of moral identity, prosocial and antisocial judgement, frequency of prosocial and antisocial behaviours in football, and social desirability. Regression analysis revealed no main effects for goal orientations and moral identity on prosocial judgement and behaviour. However, a significant interaction effect between task and ego orientation emerged in relation to prosocial judgement. Specifically, task orientation positively predicted prosocial judgement only at low levels of ego orientation. Ego orientation emerged as a positive predictor of antisocial judgement and behaviour, whereas moral identity negatively predicted these variables. The differentiation between prosocial and antisocial aspects of morality was supported. It was concluded that examining moral identity and interactions between task and ego orientation adds to our understanding of the influence of these variables on prosocial and antisocial functioning in sport.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Effects of goal-setting interventions on selected basketball skills: a single-subject design.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a goal-setting intervention program on selected components of basketball performance over the course of a competitive season. A multiple-baseline, single-subject design was used with baseline observations on various performance components (e.g., turnovers, rebounds), collected for four elite college basketball players during their first eight games of the season. At the midseason break, these players selected one aspect of their play that they felt would benefit from improvement. A goal-setting program was designed based on the goal attainment scaling procedure recommended by Smith (1988), whereby subjects generated numerical targets for their chosen components. Performance components were then assessed for the next eight games as they had been in the preintervention phase. Following the intervention, 3 of the 4 subjects showed consistent improvements in their targeted areas of performance. Also, there were no outcome changes in the performance components that weren't targeted by the subjects. The findings suggest that future studies may benefit from achieving greater ecological validity and utilizing alternative designs to the traditional nomothetic approaches which may tend to mask positive intervention effects on certain individuals.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

The relationship between competitive anxiety, achievement goals, and motivational climates.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of achievement goal orientations and perceived motivational climate to perceptions of the intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety in a sample of university athletes representing various team sports. Although some studies have demonstrated that task orientation and mastery climate are associated with adaptive emotional patterns and ego orientation and performance climate are linked to less adaptive emotions, others have not verified these findings. In the present study, structural equation modeling was used to test these links. The results showed that perceptions of a performance climate were associated with ego orientation, whereas perceptions of a mastery climate were linked to task orientation. Furthermore, no significant links were found between task orientation and direction of competitive anxiety, while it was shown that the impact of ego orientation on the intensity and direction of cognitive and somatic anxiety was exerted through self-confidence. No significant direct links were found between motivational climates and competitive anxiety, thus implying that motivational climates may have an indirect impact on affective responses through the different goal orientations. The findings of the present study are discussed along with suggestions for examining situational and individual difference variables that may explain the relationships between intensity and direction of competitive anxiety and achievement goals and motivational climates.

Achievement↗
PubMed1986

The use of goal attainment scaling to evaluate a cancer research training program for high school and college students.

Goal attainment scaling has been used frequently in the evaluation of mental health services. The purpose of this study was to assess the usefulness of the goal attainment scaling methodology in the evaluation of a cancer research training program. Subjects were 62 high school and college students participating in a summer research program. Prior to the program, all students were asked to predict the specific outcomes they expected to attain in relation to eight independent dimensions of the research training program. At the close of the program students were asked to indicate the outcome they attained for each dimension. Students also ranked the importance of each dimension. The analyses indicated that participants entered the program with accurate expectations of their ultimate achievement and satisfaction with the program. Significant differences were found for expected outcomes on a number of program dimensions for the high school and college students at the preprogram assessment. Significant differences were also found for the high school and college students' importance rankings at both the pre-program and post-program period. Goal attainment scaling proved to be a valuable and flexible technique for the evaluation of a cancer research training program.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Toward a cognitive-affective model of goal-setting in rehabilitation: is self-regulation theory a key step?

PURPOSE: The aim of this article is to argue that self-regulation theory might offer a useful model for clinical practice, theory-building and empirical research on goal-setting in rehabilitation. METHOD: Relevant literature on goal-setting and motivation in rehabilitation is considered and some problematic issues for current practice and future research are highlighted. Carver and Scheier's self-regulation theory and its application to rehabilitation research is examined. RESULTS: It is argued that self-regulation theory offers a robust theoretical framework for goal-setting and one in which the salient concepts of motivation and emotion are prominent. CONCLUSIONS: Self-regulation theory offers a potentially useful heuristic framework for rehabilitation research.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed2006

Strategies and goals of community-based injury prevention programmes--a mixed-methods study of 25 Scandinavian WHO Safe Communities.

Documentation and analysis of prevention goals and interventions employed by community-based injury prevention programmes is vital to advance the knowledge and understanding of synergistic multi-strategy injury prevention programmes. This study examined the goals and interventions of 25 Scandinavian community-based injury prevention programmes in WHO-designated Safe Communities. Collection and analysis of quantitative data from survey questionnaires to the programme coordinators was followed by collection and analysis of qualitative data from structured interviews with programme coordinators from eight of the programmes. The results demonstrated that the programmes under study predominantly relied on "intuitive" and subjective methods for selecting interventions. The programmes largely failed to transform injury surveillance data into information and knowledge that could prioritize community safety strategies and measures, due to insufficient time and personnel resources. The results demonstrated the importance of combining passive approaches with active interventions. Educational efforts were considered essential to the programmes. The programmes preferred to rely on broadly stated goals rather than specific objectives.

Community Health Services↗
PubMed2002

Improved client participation in the rehabilitation process using a client-centred goal formulation structure.

The aim was to evaluate whether the use of a client-centred instrument, the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM), affects the patients' perception of active participation in the rehabilitation process. The study included 155 patients in the experiment group and 55 in the control group, within geriatric, stroke, and home rehabilitation. The COPM was used in the experiment group. A structured interview was performed within 2-4 weeks after discharge with 88 patients in the experiment group and 30 patients in the control group. The results show significant differences between the groups. More patients in the experiment group perceived that treatment goals were identified, were able to recall the goals, felt that they were active participants in the goal formulation process, and perceived themselves better able to manage after completed rehabilitation compared with patients in the control group. The study indicates that the COPM improves client participation in the rehabilitation process.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2000

Imitation of gestures in children is goal-directed.

The view that the motor program activated during imitation is organized by goals was investigated by asking pre-school children to imitate a set of hand gestures of varying complexity that were made by an experimenter sitting in front of them. In Experiments 1 and 3, children reached for the correct object (one of their own ears or one of two dots on a table) but preferred to use the ipsilateral hand. This ipsilateral preference was not observed when hand movements were made to only one ear (Experiment 2), or when movements were directed at space rather than physical objects (Experiment 3). The results are consistent with the notion that imitation is guided by goals and provide insights about how these goals are organized.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed1994

Goals of antihypertensive treatment and planning of therapeutic trials.

The prevention of both cardiovascular events and organ damage or disease have to be considered to be different, but essential, goals of antihypertensive therapy. As the mechanisms that lead to organ damage and to events are, to a significant extent, different, it must be recognized that the achievement of the two goals has to be evaluated through trials using, separately or conjointly, different criteria. Thus far, randomized trials of antihypertensive therapy have almost exclusively measured mortality and morbidity data, and have provided information relevant to the prevention of cardiovascular events in those hypertensive patients in whom a relatively high rate of events is expected during the relatively short time span (3 to 6 years) of the trial, namely, those who have severe hypertension or who are elderly. However, in young or middle-aged patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension, for whom the goal of therapy would be to prevent or retard the development of vascular lesions to help these patients achieve their full life span, trials should be based on the measurement of organ damage rather than, or in addition to, the monitoring of events. The MIDAS trial has been the first in which two different modes of antihypertensive therapy have been tested for their capacity to influence the development of atherosclerosis in hypertension. It is likely that the results of this study will prompt many more therapeutic trials based on the quantitative assessment of organ damage in hypertension.

Antihypertensive Agents↗