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PubMed1956

Does the ingestion of alcohol influence the development of arteriosclerosis in fowls?

The effect of alcohol ingestion upon the development of naturally occurring and stilbestrol-induced arteriosclerosis was studied in the domestic fowl. In two experiments, a 15 per cent ethyl alcohol solution was used for drinking purposes, and in a third experiment wine containing 12 per cent of it was administered. The caloric intake of both food and alcohol was carefully controlled by pair-feeding, a glucose solution being used for drinking purposes to equalize the caloric intakes of the control birds with those of the alcohol-treated birds. A total of 224 cockrels was studied, and the period of observation for each experiment lasted 12 months. The degree of arteriosclerosis in the thoracic and abdominal aortas was determined in the gross and microscopically, and the degree of lipide infiltration was determined microscopically. The gross grading of arteriosclerotic lesions agreed closely with the microscopic analysis of intimal thickening and lipide infiltration of the arterial wall. The gross gradings were subjected to a critical statistical analysis which allowed precise statements to be made on the probability that a real effect would be overlooked. This analysis yielded no evidence that alcohol or the wine used had affected the degree of gross arteriosclerosis or lipide infiltration.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Measurement of maximum oxygen consumption in Guinea fowl Numida meleagris indicates that birds and mammals display a similar diversity of aerobic scopes during running.

Judgement of exercise performance in birds has been hampered by a paucity of data on maximal aerobic capacity. We measured the maximal rate of oxygen consumption (Vo2,max) in running guinea fowl Numida meleagris, a bird that has been used in several previous studies of avian running. Mean Vo2,max during level treadmill running was 97.5+/-3.7 mL O(2) kg(-1) min(-1) (mean+/-SEM, N=5). Vo2,max was on average 6% higher when the birds ran uphill compared with the value during level running (paired t-test, P=0.041, N=5). The mean basal rate of oxygen consumption (Vo2,bmr) of the same individuals was 7.9+/-0.5 mL O(2) kg(-1) min(-1). Mean factorial aerobic scope based on individually measured values of Vo2,max and Vo2,bmr was 13.2+/-0.6 (mean+/-SEM, N=5). This value was considerably lower than the factorial aerobic scope previously measured during running in Rhea americana, a large flightless ratite. The difference in factorial scope between these two running birds likely reflects the effects of body size as well as size-independent differences in the ability to deliver and use oxygen. These data confirm a previous prediction that birds have a diversity of factorial aerobic scopes similar to that exhibited by mammals.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

The gene action and function of two dopa oxidase positive melanocyte mutants of the fowl.

Ultrastructural and autoradiographic analysis revealed the developmental genetic differences between the dopa oxidase positive pk and I mutations of the fowl. The differences were revealed by the results of five measurements involving homozygous mutant melanocytes, heterozygous melanocytes, and standard melanocytes at each of the loci. The measurements were: ultrastructural comparisons of melanosomes in pigmented epithelial (PE) and neural crest derived (NC) melanocytes, the number of 3H-dopa and 3H-leucine grains/mu2 of melanosome, the 3H-dopa/3H-leucine ratio, and the percentage of cytoplasmic 3H-leucine grains that were melanosomal. The pk mutation altered both PE and NC melanosomes. +/pk melanocytes were characterized by suppressed 3H-dopa/mu2 and 3H-dopa/3H-leucine values. +/pk cells, however, had the same percentage of melanosomal 3H-leucine grains as the "pk" standard. The I mutation altered only NC melanosomes. +/I melanocytes were characterized by 3H-dopa/mu2 and 3H-dopa/3H-leucine values similar to the "I" standard. +/I cells had a lower percentage of melanosomal 3H-leucine grains that the "I" standard, however. These data suggest that pk is a structural mutation affecting melanin binding to the premelanosome, while I seems to be a control gene mutation partially suppressing the production of premelanosomal components in NC melanocytes.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Elongation of the N-glycans of fowl plague virus hemagglutinin expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells by coexpression of human beta 1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I.

Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9)-cells differ markedly in their protein glycosylation capacities from vertebrate cells in that they are not able to generate complex type oligosaccharide side chains. In order to improve the oligosaccharide processing properties of these cells we have used baculovirus vectors for expression of human (beta 1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I (hGNT-I), the enzyme catalysing the crucial step in the pathway leading to complex type N-glycans in vertebrate cells. One vector (Bac/GNT) was designed to express unmodified GNT-I protein, the second vector (Bac/tagGNT) to express GNT-I protein with a tag epitope fused to its N-terminus. In Sf9-cells infected with Bac/tagGNT-virus a protein of about 50 kDa representing hGNT-I was detected with an antiserum directed against the tag epitope. HGNT-I activity was increased at least threefold in lysates of infected cells when N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc)-free ovalbumine was used as substrate. To monitor hGNT-I activity in intact Sf9-cells, the glycosylation of coexpressed fowl plague virus hemagglutinin (HA) was investigated employing a galactosylation assay and chromatographic analysis of isolated HA N-glycans. Coexpression of hGNT-I resulted in an at least fourfold increase of HA carrying terminal GlcNAc-residues. The only structure detectable in this fraction was GlcNAcMan3GlcNAc2. These results show that hGNT-I is functionally active in Sf9-cells and that the N-glycans of proteins expressed in the baculovirus/insect cell system are elongated by coexpression of glycosyltransferases of vertebrate origin. Complete complex type oligosaccharide side chains were not observed when hGNT-I was overexpressed, thus supporting the concept that Sf9-cells do not contain glycosyltransferases acting after hGNT-I.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Simple in-vitro feeding system for northern fowl mites (Acari: Macronyssidae).

The use of Parafilm membranes for in-vitro feeding of northern fowl mites, Ornithonyssus sylviarum (Canestrini & Fanzago), is described. A membrane stretched in two perpendicular directions, folded, heat-sealed, inflated, and twisted at the ends to form a sphere allowed a high percentage (greater than 80%) of surviving adult female mites to feed on whole chicken blood. A high percentage (7 of 10) of protonymphs also fed through the membrane. Mites were able to feed from the same sac for 3 d and oviposited on the sac. This technology has potential applications for use in rearing O. sylviarum and other hematophagous arthropods, and for physiological experimentation.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in fowl and events through perinatal development.

Starch is the main carbohydrate in the food of poultry. Starch granules are digested by pancreatic alpha-amylase in the small intestine. Intestinal villi have enterocytes that project microvilli with a fibrous glycocalyx from the surface. These fine structures are envisaged to entrap water that is mixed with mucin from nearby goblet cells to form the "unstirred water layer." Maltose, maltotriose and alpha-limit dextrins must diffuse across this first barrier to absorption to be hydrolyzed by maltase and sucrase-isomaltase immobilized at the membrane; however, the resultant glucose, once formed, accrues at the surface to provide a concentration advantage. Fowl adjust to changes in dietary starch by altering the amount of amylase released, intestinal surface area and enterocyte carbohydrase concentration. Enterocytes arising during embryonic development have no carbohydrases and are not involved with glucose absorption, but they appear to be specialized for maternal immunoglobin transfer in ovo. Embryonic villi are stimulated by transfer activity, and their growth depends on enterocytes arising from the crypt. Mature crypt cells are capable of digestion-absorptive activities and dominate the villus shortly after the chick hatches when yolk sac reserves are depleted.

Absorption↗
PubMed1977

Soluble proteins from fowl feather keratin. III. Isolation and characteristics of some calamus proteins.

The main fraction, GF-3, separated from SCM-proteins of fowl feather calamus by gel filtration, was separated into seven peaks, C-1 to C-7, by ion exchange chromatography on a DEAE-cellulose column. Each fraction was found to contain two components by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In order to separate these two components, recycling gel filtration on a Sephadex G-75 column was carried out. Two peaks separated from each of four fractions, C-3 to C-6, were termed C-3a and -3b, C-4a and -4b, and so on. Electrophoretic results showed that all the fractions were single protein components. Components a and b of a particular fraction had almost identical electric charge and slightly different molecular size. All components in Group a (C-3a to C-6a) had similar amino acid compositions except for SCM-cysteine content, and similar results were obtained for Group b (C-3b to C-7b). Groups a and b had significantly different amino acid compositions.

Amino Acids↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Missing upper beak: a new lethal mutation in domestic fowl.

A new condition affecting the facial structure of domestic fowl is described. It is controlled by an autosomal recessive gene having complete penetrance. The mutation has been named missing upper beak and the gene symbol mub is proposed. The condition is an obligate lethal. Mortality occurs on the twelfth day of incubation or during the hatching process. One chick hatched unaided and five were assisted from the shell; none of these survived beyond 11 days of age. They had partial vision and hearing, they could vocalize and had normal balance, but they were unable to eat. Major phenotypic effects of the mutation are absence of the upper beak and absence of eyelids. All or part of the upper eyelid is always missing; the lower eyelid and nictitating membrane may be present or absent. Premaxilla and nasal bones are greatly reduced causing the upper beak to be rudimentary. Other membranous bones of the head are reduced causing the face to be shortened. Cartilaginous bones appear not to be affected. It is postulated that the condition results from a defect in membrane formation during embryonic development.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Dominant white plumage-color somatic mosaic in the domestic fowl.

An unusual feather-color mosaic of the variegated type is described in the fowl. The bird, a female, has the e+/e+ wild-type plumage pattern with light tan or buffish colored feathers intermingled over her sides and dorsal surface. This condition is bilateral and symmetrical with whole feathers being diluted in some areas and parts of feathers in others. Breeding tests with e+/e+ males showed that the bird was heterozygous for dominant white (l/i+) and homozygous for e+. All her e+/e+, l/i+ offspring were of the red-pyle pattern as would be expected from that genotype. The possible cause of this mosaic condition may be due either to the loss of the l-bearing locus or to a reverse mutation to i+ in neural crest cells destined to become the primordial melanoblasts.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Hereditary congenital baldness: a sex-linked trait in the domestic fowl.

Congenital baldness in the domestic fowl is a genetic condition in which small irregular skin areas are devoid of down feathers (and later definitive feathers) over one or both eyes and/or the center of the head. In this study, the expression of congenital baldness was quite variable and ranged in size from a few follicles to areas as large as 10 mm2. The area over the right eye and the center of the head was more frequently involved than was the area over the left eye. This condition was inherited as sex-linked recessive. The symbol ba was assigned to the gene, and it was shown to be linked to the sal locus by 7.6 to 8.2 crossover units. An unusual feature was that 5% to 13% of heterozygous males exhibited the trait.

Alopecia↗
PubMed1997

Tenderizing spent fowl meat with calcium chloride. 3. Biochemical characteristics of tenderized breast meat.

Biochemical characteristics of spent fowl meat injected with calcium chloride or sodium chloride were evaluated. Hot-boned breast fillets were injected to 10% (wt/wt) with 0.3 M CaCl2 or 0.6 M NaCl, tumbled, and aged 24 h. Tumbling was conducted at 20 C, -635 mm Hg, 20 rpm for 1 h. Hot-boned and cold-boned (24 h) fillets were used as controls. One fillet from each carcass was baked and sheared with an Allo-Kramer cell, whereas the other fillet was used for biochemical analysis. Shear values indicated that both CaCl2- and NaCl-treated samples had significantly (P < 0.05) lower shear values than hot-boned controls but were similar (P > 0.05) to cold-boned samples. The CaCl2 injection treatment significantly elevated (P < 0.05) the tissue calcium content compared to all other treatments. There was no significant difference in heat-stable collagen content (P > 0.05) among all treatments, which indicated that CaCl2 or NaCl did not contribute to meat tenderness through degradative changes in collagen. Calpain data indicated that mu-calpain had disappeared by 24 h aging in all treatments. The m-calpain activity was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in samples treated with CaCl2 than in the other samples. The NaCl-treated samples had m-calpain activity similar (P > 0.05) to that of hot-boned controls. Sarcomeres of CaCl2-treated samples were significantly shorter (P < 0.05) than those of cold-boned controls, were similar (P > 0.05) to those of hot-boned controls, and were shorter than those of NaCl-treated muscles. The sarcomere length and calpain data suggest that CaCl2 tenderized fillets by ionic strength and calcium-specific effects (possibly a proteolytic action), whereas the NaCl solution tenderized by ionic strength effect at a similar conductivity level to that of the CaCl2 solution.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Tenderizing spent fowl meat with calcium chloride. 4. Improved oxidative stability and the effects of additional aging.

The goal of these experiments was to determine the effects of CaCl2 and NaCl injections on spent fowl meat tenderness and oxidative stability. Two hundred spent Leghorn hens were used in this two-part study. In the first experiment, breast fillets from 160 spent Leghorn hens were harvested immediately after death, injected with 0.3 M CaCl2 or H2O, vacuum tumbled, and either cooked immediately after tumbling or aged at 1 C for 23 h prior to cooking. Although the CaCl2 injection reduced shear values without aging, additional tenderization occurred during the aging period. In the second experiment, breast fillets from 40 spent Leghorn hens were harvested immediately after death, injected with 0.3 M CaCl2, 0.6 M NaCl, 0.15 M CaCl2 + 0.3 M NaCl, or H2O, vacuum tumbled, and then aged at 1 C for 23 h before cooking. The three salt injection treatments reduced shear values to a similar extent, but the sarcomeres were significantly longer for the NaCl treatment than the CaCl2 or combination treatments. Panelists preferred the CaCl2 + NaCl fillets over the CaCl2 fillets. Replacing some of the CaCl2 with NaCl maintained the tenderizing effect, and panelist comments indicated that the slight aftertaste of the 0.3 M CaCl2 treatment was reduced. The sodium contribution of the 0.6 M NaCl treatment would also be reduced by the CaCl2 + NaCl treatment.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Comparison of cryoprotectants and methods of cryopreservation of fowl spermatozoa.

The deleterious effects of three cryoprotectants, glycerol, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), and dimethylacetamide (DMA), were compared on fowl spermatozoa. The viability and integrity of spermatozoa were measured with eosin-nigrosin smears. Glycerol was the least deleterious cryoprotectant, followed by DMA, and DMSO was the most toxic. Methods employing either glycerol or DMA were then compared for the cryopreservation of semen in either straws or pellets. Fertility was measured following artificial insemination. The highest fertility rates were obtained with semen frozen with DMA in pellets directly plunged in liquid nitrogen, DMA being added at -6 C (92.7%) or 5 C (84.7%). When semen was frozen in straws, glycerol equilibrated for 1 or 30 min gave the highest fertility results, but the fertility rates were lower (53.7 and 63.9%) than with DMA in pellets. The lowest results (26.7%) were obtained when semen was frozen in straws with DMA. When semen was frozen in pellets at very high cooling rates, DMA was superior to glycerol as a cryoprotectant, as evidenced by fertility. In contrast, when straws and low freezing rates were used, glycerol gave better results; however these results were never as high as those obtained with DMA and pellets. In conclusion, under our experimental conditions, the highest fertility rates were achieved with DMA and pellets. However, for gene banking, which requires high levels of safety and clear identification, glycerol and straws are more convenient.

Acetamides↗
PubMed2000

Topical application of garlic reduces northern fowl mite infestation in laying hens.

Northern fowl mites (NFM) are external parasites that can lower egg production and cause anemia and even death in laying hens. An experiment was conducted with New Hampshire Red and Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens. Hens were individually caged and provided a complete laying diet and water ad libitum. Hens were assigned to groups in a way that assured that treatments, within each breed, would be applied to comparable numbers of birds with light and heavy mite infestations. Each hen was sprayed around the vent with either water or 10% garlic juice in water. Spraying continued each week for 3 wk. During the fourth week, each bird was scored for the presence of NFM on its skin and feathers. A small snippet of feathers was removed from below the vent of each hen and placed in a labeled petri dish with a round, white filter paper insert. The NFM content of each dish was scored by two individuals approximately 1 h after sampling. There was no significant difference in the NFM scores for hens based on breed or future treatment. After the birds were treated for 3 wk, there was no significant difference in external NFM scores based on breed. There were significantly fewer NFM on the birds treated with garlic juice compared with controls, based on external and petri dish scoring (P < 0.002 and P < 0.04, respectively). The reduction in external NFM score was also significant (P < 0.004), with controls declining approximately 0.2 units, whereas garlic-treated hens had a 1.8-unit decrease in external NFM score. Topical application of garlic juice may be an effective way to decrease NFM in laying hens.

Administration, Topical↗
PubMed2004

Responses of young red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) and White Leghorn layers to familiar and unfamiliar social stimuli.

Social preferences of familiar over unfamiliar social stimuli in chicks may be used to measure sociality, a characteristic important for the welfare of poultry in commercial production. We studied social preferences and reaction to strangers in young White Leghorns and red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) in 3 tests. All chicks were raised and housed in 2 groups of 34 individuals per breed. At 24 to 29 d of age 38 chicks per breed were tested in 2 runway tests. In the first, chicks had a free choice between familiar and unfamiliar breed members, and in the second the choice was between unfamiliar chicks of their own breed and the other breed. On d 41 to 42, spacing and agonistic interactions of 28 pairs of chicks per breed (in half of the pairs, chicks were unfamiliar to each other) were observed in an open field for 10 min (pair test). In the first runway test, clear preference for familiar chicks and avoidance of unfamiliar social stimuli was found only in Leghorns, whereas both breeds showed a preference for their own breed members in the second runway test. Affiliation to the familiar breed, however, was more pronounced in Leghorns. In the pair test, Leghorns were significantly more involved in agonistic interactions than wild-type chicks. Avoidance of unfamiliar and preference for familiar conspecifics might suggest a weaker capacity of Leghorns to cope with novel social and environmental stimuli, which might have implications for the welfare of the birds in production environments when encountering unfamiliar individuals.

Animal Welfare↗
PubMed2004

Acaricide resistance in northern fowl mite (Ornithonyssus sylviarum) populations on caged layer operations in Southern California.

Southern California caged layer operations were visited over 3 yr. Northern fowl mites from 26 field populations were tested for acaricide resistance using a capillary pipette and glass dish bioassay. One was a susceptible field population with no pesticide exposure for over 30 yr (reference site for resistance ratio calculation). Technical and commercial formulations of malathion, carbaryl (Sevin), permethrin, and a commercial formulation of tetrachlorvinphos/dichlorvos (Ravap) were tested. Malathion did not have high activity for mites relative to other materials, but resistance to both technical and commercial formulations was low (< 5x). Resistance to other materials was moderate to extreme. Frequency of carbaryl resistance (> 10x) was higher with the commercial (88%) than the technical material (41%); 19% of the populations had resistance > 100x to commercial carbaryl. Frequency of Ravap resistance (> 10x) was 68%; 8% of populations had resistance > 100x. Frequency of permethrin resistance (> 10x) was 72% for the technical material and 88% for the commercial formulation. Extreme permethrin resistance (> 1,000x) was observed in 56 and 50% of mite populations assayed using the technical and commercial formulations, respectively. Among sites, resistance to permethrin was uncorrelated with resistance to other chemicals, suggesting a different resistance mechanism. Resistance to carbaryl and Ravap was highly correlated [r = 0.76 at the LC50 level (concentrations estimated to be lethal to 50% of the test population) and r = 0.99 at the LC95 level], suggesting a common resistance mechanism. Producers currently depend completely on pesticides to control mite infestations. Mite resistance to registered materials emphasizes the need for integrated control measures.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

Eliminating the carriage of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis in domestic fowls by feeding activated charcoal from bark containing wood vinegar liquid (Nekka-Rich).

The protective efficacy of activated charcoal containing wood vinegar liquid (Nekka-Rich) against intestinal infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis was sought. In the present study, the adsorption effects of activated charcoal of Nekka-Rich on S. Enteritidis and normal bacterial flora in the intestine, Enterococcus faecium, were examined. S. Enteritidis was effectively adsorbed by activated charcoal of Nekka-Rich. On the other hand, activated charcoal of Nekka-Rich showed lower binding capacity to E.faecium. The effects of wood vinegar liquid included in Nekka-Rich on the growth of S. Enteritidis and normal bacterial flora in the intestine, E. faecium and Bifidobacterium thermophilum, were also assessed. Wood vinegar liquid had an inhibitory effect on the S. Enteritidis growth, whereas growth of E. faecium and B. thermophilum was enhanced by wood vinegar liquid. Furthermore, the protective effects of Nekka-Rich were evaluated in a challenge chicken model with S. Enteritidis. Chickens were fed a basal diet containing Nekka-Rich or immunized with commercially obtained S. Enteritidis vaccine and challenged with S. Enteritidis. Significantly less fecal excretion of S. Enteritidis was observed in chickens fed Nekka-Rich for 10 d after challenge. On d 15 after challenge, S. Enteritidis was not isolated from fecal samples. On the other hand, immunization of chickens with S. Enteritidis vaccine did not fully inhibit bacterial growth. Fecal excretion of S. Enteritidis was consistently observed in the vaccinated chickens after challenge. These results suggest that Nekka-Rich would be a good product for eliminating the carriage of S. Enteritidis in domestic fowl.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2006

Protein quality of poultry by-product meal manufactured from whole fowl co-extruded with corn or wheat.

Three experiments were conducted with turkey poults to characterize the protein quality of a novel poultry by-product meal composed of aged fowl extruded with either corn (CHM) or wheat (WHM). In Experiment 1, a growth assay was conducted to determine a dietary protein response range for semipurified diets containing CHM or WHM as the sole sources of dietary protein. Diets contained 12, 15, and 18% CP, and there was a linear increase in BW with no significant differences between the 2 sources. The same dietary protein levels were used to determine the protein efficiency ratio (PER), net protein ratio (NPR), and apparent amino acid digestibility of CHM and WHM in Experiments 2 and 3. In Experiment 3, WHM and CHM were also compared with soybean meal (SBM) and meat and bone meal (MBM). In Experiment 2, there were no significant differences between CHM and WHM in PER or NPR, but the variability between levels of CP did account for a significant level of CP x source interaction (P < 0.05). In Experiment 3, there were no significant protein level effects on PER or NPR, but the values for MBM were consistently lower than those for CHM, WHM, and SBM. The apparent amino acid digestibility coefficients for MBM were also consistently lower than those for CHM and WHM. In conclusion, the extruded WHM and CHM products have acceptable protein quality and were better than MBM as single sources of dietary protein.

Animal Feed↗