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PubMed1996

Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruction Project--an overview.

The Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruction Project was initiated because of public interest in the historical releases of radioactive materials from the Hanford Site, located in southcentral Washington State. By 1986, over 38,000 pages of environmental monitoring documentation from the early years of Hanford operations had been released. Special committees reviewing the documents recommended initiation of the Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruction Project, which began in October 1987, and is conducted by Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories. The technical approach taken was to reconstruct releases of radioactive materials based on facility operating information; develop and/or adapt transport, pathway, and dose models and computer codes; reconstruct environmental, meteorological, and hydrological monitoring information; reconstruct demographic, agricultural, and lifestyle characteristics; apply statistical methods to all forms of uncertainty in the information, parameters, and models; and perform scientific investigations that were technically defensible. The geographic area for the study includes approximately 2 x 10(5) km2 (75,000 mi2) in eastern Washington, western Idaho, and northeastern Oregon (essentially the Mid-Columbia Basin of the Pacific Northwest). Three exposure pathways were considered: the atmosphere, the Columbia River, and ground water. the radionuclide of interest for atmospheric pathway doses was 131I. The median dose for the maximally exposed individual was approximately 2.3 Gy (230 rad) to the thyroid over the period from 1944 to 1972 with a 90% subjective confidence interval of 0.54 to 8.4 Gy (54 to 840 rad). The Columbia River was studied from Priest Rapids Dam, upstream of the Hanford Site, to the mouth of the river and nearby bays. Radionuclides of interest for river pathway doses were 24Na, 32P, 65Zn, 76As, and 239Np. The median dose from the river pathway for the maximally exposed individual was approximately 0.0015 Sv (0.15 rem) effective dose equivalent in the period of maximum exposure (1950-1970). Doses from the groundwater pathway were determined to be below levels of interest for the project.

Air Pollutants, Radioactive↗

PubMed2004

Evaluation of coastal waters receiving fish processing waste: Lota Bay as a case study.

Liquid wastes from the fish meal and oil processing industries produce serious environmental impacts in coastal embayments on the coasts of Chile and Peru. This article presents an analysis of an environmental monitoring program at Lota Bay, a shallow coastal indentation in central Chile (37 degrees S) exposed to industrial fishing activity. The study of the environmental impact produced by waste effluents permitted making an evaluation of the bay's capacity for seasonal recovery from this impact. Seasonal cruises were carried out during 1994 and in 1996, 1997, and 1998. Variables analyzed included salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonium concentration and surface oil and grease. The hydrographic regime of Lota Bay follows a seasonal pattern, where, typical of most SE pacific embayments, waters from subsuperficial oxygen minimum zones moved into the bay. The percentages of dissolved oxygen were critical in the area of organic waste discharge. The impact of wastewater is related to the type and status of the fishery, including: (i) overloads of plant production lines, (ii) maintenance and cleaning of installations, and (iii) degree of shipboard fishing conservation. Major alterations were observed in summer, when the highest discharge of organic load occurred. In winter, an improvement in the re-aeration conditions reduced the impact. Remedial measures implemented beginning in 1997 arose from the monitoring program and had to be separated into two recovery factors including (a) internal management of plants and (b) treatment of plant effluents.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Environmental and biological monitoring in a lead acid battery manufacturing unit in India.

An environmental and biological monitoring of a lead acid battery manufacturing unit was carried out to measure the respirable particulate matter, lead content in working atmosphere and blood lead levels of workers employed in different sections. The results showed high mean air lead concentration in buffing (1444.45 microg/m(3)), plate cutting (430.14 microg/m(3)) and pasting (277.48 microg/m(3)) sections. The mean blood lead levels of employees in these sections were also higher than the values prescribed by ACGIH.

Environmental Monitoring↗

PubMed2002

Metallothionein in liver of eels Anguilla anguilla from the Thames Estuary: an indicator of environmental quality?

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the cysteine-rich protein metallothionein (MT) in the detoxification and metabolism of metals in livers of eels Anguilla anguilla from the Thames Estuary, and to assess the value of MT measurements in environmental monitoring. Hepatic MT levels and associated metal concentrations were determined in A. anguilla collected on three occasions during 1998 at sites along the tidal Thames (from freshwater to the sea) and also from a reference site (Tamar Estuary) in southwest England. MT was present at basal levels of 2 mg g(-1) dry weight (dw), predominantly in association with the essential metals Cu and Zn. MT concentrations were variable within each eel 'population' but were generally highest (up to 11 mg g(-1) in individual eels) at the more contaminated upper- and mid-estuarine sites in the Thames (e.g. Brentford and Kew). Lowest MT levels were those in eels from Blythe Sands at the mouth of the estuary. Season, sex, reproductive status and salinity may have influenced MT levels to some extent, although metals were the most significant factor. Hepatic MT concentrations were highly correlated with associated metal burdens (Zn, Cu, Ag and Cd),--notably reflecting Cu and Ag enrichment in the upper- and mid-estuary. With the exception of Zn, metals in the supernatant fraction of eel livers were primarily associated with MT. Proportions of Cu, Ag and Cd bound to MT increased as a function of accumulated metal burdens, with no indication of saturation. Thus, despite causing induction of MT, excess bioavailable Cu, Ag and Cd appear to be successfully detoxified in eels over the range of environmental contamination encountered along the Thames Estuary. Paradoxically, it may be argued from conventional doctrine that the presence of raised levels of MT, at upstream sites, constitutes a response to contamination and, by definition, signals that the fish are affected by metals; however, obvious signs of deleterious effects were not detected. Superficially, from liver MT data, it would seem that eel populations have become biochemically adapted to metal contamination. The approach tested here has proved viable in helping to interpret trends in bioavailability and the toxicological significance of accumulated metal burdens in Thames eels. A. anguilla is a common inhabitant of estuarine and fresh waters throughout Europe, and related species occur world wide. Therefore, determination of hepatic MT (and associated metals) in eels could be useful for monitoring responses to metal exposure and environmental quality on a much broader basis. Ideally these determinations should be performed in tandem with other sublethal-effects measurements to maximise information.

Anguilla↗

PubMed1993

Urinary styrene in the biological monitoring of styrene exposure.

The urinary excretion of styrene represents a promising indicator of exposure to this solvent. Nevertheless extensive research under field conditions is scant. In this investigation 214 styrene-exposed workers from 10 fiberglass-reinforced plastics factories were studied. Environmental monitoring was performed by personal passive sampling. Blood styrene and the urinary excretion of styrene and its main metabolites, mandelic acid (MA) and phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA), were measured. The correlation coefficient between the time-weighted average of environmental styrene and the mean urinary excretion of styrene was 0.88 (0.91 after logarithmic transformation), compared with the 0.82 and 0.78 of the end-of-shift MA and PGA values, respectively. A high correlation (0.86) was also found between styrene in the blood and urine. The results, obtained under field conditions with a large group of exposed workers, confirm the usefulness of the urinary excretion of styrene as an exposure index for the biological monitoring of styrene exposure.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Dermal absorption of vaporous and liquid 2-methoxyethanol and 2-ethoxyethanol in volunteers.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate dermal absorption of vaporous and liquid 2-methoxyethanol (ME) and 2-ethoxyethanol (EE) in volunteers. METHODS: Five volunteers (two men and three women) were dermally exposed to vaporised and liquid ME and EE. Dermal exposure on an area of about 1000 cm2 (forearm and hand) to vapours of ME and EE (4000 mg/m3 ME and 3700 mg/m3 EE) lasted for 45 minutes. Duration of exposure to liquid ME and EE on an area of 27 cm2 (forearm) was 15 minutes. Dermal uptake was assessed by measurement of the main metabolites in urinary methoxyacetic acid (MAA) and ethoxyacetic acid (EAA). For each volunteer, excretion of metabolites was compared with a reference inhalatory exposure. RESULTS: Mean (SD) absorption rates of ME and EE vapour were 36 (11) and 19 (6) cm/h respectively. The mean (SD) absorption rates of the liquid ME and EE amounted to 2.9 (2.0) and 0.7 (0.3) mg/cm2.h. CONCLUSIONS: Vaporised and liquid ME and EE are readily absorbed through the skin. In the combined inhalatory and dermal exposure when whole body surface is exposed to vapour, the uptake through the skin is estimated to be 55% of the total uptake of ME and 42% of EE. Dermal uptake resulting from skin contact of both hands and forearms (about 2000 cm2) with liquid ME and EE for 60 minutes would exceed inhalatory uptake of the eight hour occupational exposure limit by 100 times at 16 mg/m3 of ME and 20 times at 19 mg/m3 of EE. The substantial skin uptake of ME and EE indicates that in assessing the health risks biological monitoring and use of biological exposure indices are preferable to environmental monitoring.

Acetates↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Assessment of chemical risk according to the D.L. vo 25/2002 in the goldsmith craft industry].

In the last year, various companies of the goldsmith handicraft field have been inquired. These factories are in an area of the Caserta territory. Scope of that job was to apply the method for the chemical risk assessment previewed by D.L.vo 25/2002, using the scheme proposed by Work Minister--General Directorate-Work condition protection. In particular, it has been estimated biological and environmental expositions concerned several chemical metallic agents: Au, Ag, Cu, Zn, Cd, In, Co and Pd. Moreover, it has been focused the attention on the biological and environmental monitoring of Ag, because there are a good correlation between environmental and urinary doses. The analyses have been carried out using atomic absorption techniques. It turns out to you evidence that environmental and biological silver values are often under the detection limit of the method. Therefore, concerning the chemical risk assessment of the investigated factories, it is possible to conclude that: "the potential chemical risk has to be considered moderate".

Dust↗

PubMed2001

[Microbial environmental surveillance in a bone marrow transplant unit].

The aim of this study was to evaluate, after several years of application, in a bone marrow transplant (BMT) center of a Cagliari Hospital, the effectiveness of the disinfection protocol in minimizing the risk of environmentally transmitted infections. Microbial contamination of the air was evaluated every two months during normal activity using an SAS sampler. The contamination of surfaces was determined weekly, 2hrs after sanitation, using disposable surface contact plates. The results of environmental monitoring generally showed low values of microbial contamination of air and surfaces. Only two service rooms and two patient's rooms without own bathroom showed levels of microbial contamination slightly exceeding, in a few samplings, the values considered acceptable for environments at high risk of infections. From a qualitative point of view, the microrganisms isolated generally belonged to environmental species. In conclusion our study confirms the importance of microbial monitoring in the control and prevention of outbreaks of infections in BMT Units. This approach allows significant reduction in the level of contamination not only by improving cleaning procedures, but also by motivating the cleaning staff trough making them aware of their responsibilities.

Air Microbiology↗

PubMed2003

Monitoring human occupational and environmental exposures to polycyclic aromatic compounds.

Many research groups have been carrying out studies to develop biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) and apply these for human biomonitoring. The main objectives of the use of biomarkers are to determine specific occupational and environmental exposures to monitor the effectiveness of exposure controls and prediction of the risk of disease. This article presents a review of the literature in the field of biomarkers of human exposure to PACs and an evaluation of the relevant biomarkers for monitoring exposure to PACs in a range of exposure situations from coke ovens to bitumen handling and environmental exposures. For this evaluation, the relationships between external PAC exposures and the corresponding biomarker levels have been studied. The literature data indicate that urinary excretion of 1-hydroxypyrene correlates well with external PAC exposure and this compound appears to be a suitable marker for internal exposure to PACs. DNA adducts, mostly measured in white blood cells, do not show satisfactory correlations with exposure to PACs in a variety of workplace and exposure situations. It is not clear which factors are mainly responsible for this poor correlation. Micronuclei and sister chromatid exchanges measured in peripheral white blood cells are also unsatisfactory as biomarkers for PAC exposure. From the relatively limited data available, chromosome aberrations appear to show considerable promise as indicators of exposure to PACs. Because of their strong association with cancer, chromosome aberrations are considered suitable indicators of increased cancer risk arising from exposure to PACs.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Development of a free beta-galactosidase in vitro test for the assessment of heavy metal toxicity.

The effect of heavy metals and organic compounds on the activity of the enzyme beta-galactosidase in a standardized bioassay has been evaluated, considering future applications in environmental monitoring. The tests were done using a commercial extract of a hydrolase from the eukaryote yeast Kluyveromyces lactis and o-nitrophenyl-beta-D-galactopyranoside (ONPG) as substrate. The enzyme was exposed to Cr(VI), Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II), Pb(II), Hg(II), phenol, sodium dodecyl sulfate, methanol and pentachlorophenol for 5, 15, 30, and 60 min. According to the results, a 15 min exposure time was considered optimum for the performance of the assay. Results of tests with metals showed IC50 values ranging between 9.25mg/L for Cd(II) and 0.015mg/L for Hg(II), with an order of sensitivity of: Cd(II) < Ni(II) < Cr(VI) = Pb(II) < Cu(II) < Hg(II). Sensitivity to organic compounds ranged from 200 to 4,000 mg/L, showing a higher specificity to heavy metals. The present in vitro free enzyme test showed a similar behavior to other tests based on beta-galactosidase such as the MetPlate. Furthermore, when compared to data from the literature on acute toxicity assays currently used in environmental assessment, test results show good agreement regarding the sensitivity to metals. After standardization, the proposed test could be used as a rapid and low-cost assay when evaluating biological effects of heavy metals in monitoring programs.

Environmental Monitoring↗

PubMed2006

Epidemiological investigation, cleanup, and eradication of pullorum disease in adult chickens and ducks in two small-farm flocks.

Pullorum disease causing acute septicemia and mortality in adult brown chickens was diagnosed in a small-farm chicken flock in Iowa. Also, Salmonella Pullorum was isolated from the intestine of one of four rats trapped on this index farm. Tracing movements of spent hens from the index farm resulted in identification of a second infected flock on a contact farm. Poultry on the contact farm were tested with the stained-antigen, rapid whole-blood test, and two ducks and one chicken gave positive reactions. Reactors were necropsied and cultures of appropriate tissues resulted in isolation of Salmonella Pullorum from one duck and the chicken. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis banding patterns of Salmonella Pullorum isolates from chickens on the index and contact farms, the duck, and the rat demonstrated that all isolates were genetically very similar. Both flocks were quarantined and depopulated and a detailed flock cleanup plan was created for both farms. After extensive cleaning and disinfection procedures were completed on the index farm, environmental monitoring and bioassays of trapped mice were conducted. Negative cultures of environmental swabs and trapped mice and negative blood tests of all birds conducted 4 mo after placement of a new flock on the index farm demonstrated that cleaning and disinfection methods used in this outbreak had successfully eliminated Salmonella Pullorum organisms from this farm.

Agriculture↗

PubMed1990

A permanent US-Mexico border environmental health commission. Council on Scientific Affairs.

Public health officials, physicians, and politicians have long been aware of the squalid environmental conditions existing along the US-Mexico border. Some attempts have been made to improve the environmental pollution and causes of human disease, beginning as early as the 1930s with the IBWC, established in 1889. More recent agreements and legislation have called for US and Mexico cooperation by way of each nation's corresponding environmental agency (ie, the EPA and Mexico's SEDUE) and their agencies of foreign affairs (ie, the IBWC). Nevertheless, environmental monitoring and disease incidence data continue to point out that public and environmental health along the border--the result of uncontrolled air and water pollution and lack of disease vector control--is rapidly deteriorating and seriously affecting the health and future economic vitality on both sides of the border. Many prominent public health professionals and environmental organizations are concerned that the present working relationship between the United States and Mexico is not functioning well and cannot adequately cope with existing environmental conditions; for one thing, the efforts of the EPA and SEDUE are reviewed no more frequently than once a year by a staff quartered in Washington and Mexico City. Some projects to improve these conditions have been undertaken by the EPA and SEDUE and the IBWC; at present, the prospects for success do not appear promising. Consequently, these individuals and organizations have urged creation of a US-Mexico border environmental health commission. Congress did see fit last year to give responsibility for the environment to the IBWC in the form of Public Law 100-465. This law, however, does not address the full severity of environmental and public health degradation along the border; it does not address the pollution of the New River, Agua Prieta, the San Pedro River, or the Pacific Ocean, neither does it offer remedial control of hazardous waste sites, rabies, and other disease vectors. Moreover, the IBWC is only a deliberative body, not an implementing one.

Air Pollution↗

PubMed2006

Serum chemistry values for free-ranging ringed seals (Pusa hispida) in Svalbard.

BACKGROUND: Diseases and abnormal physiologic conditions can alter the concentrations of enzymes, metabolites, minerals, and hormones in the blood of animals. The ringed seal (Pusa hispida) has been selected as a key species for environmental monitoring, but information on disease and health parameters for this species is scarce. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study reported here was to obtain serum chemistry reference intervals for free-ranging ringed seals in Svalbard, and then to evaluate serum chemistry values in relation to age, body condition, and sex. METHODS: Blood samples were collected after death from ringed seals in Wijdefjorden and Billefjorden, Svalbard (2002-2003; n = 75). Serum was analyzed for 24 selected serum chemistry parameters (enzymes, protein, metabolites, minerals, and cortisol). RESULTS: Compared with younger or older animals, seals between 7 and 16 years of age had larger variations in the activities of alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, lactate dehydrogenase, and creatine kinase (CK). Animals classified as having low body condition status had more variation in the serum activity of these enzymes, compared with that in animals with higher condition scores. Serum cortisol concentration was higher in young animals (1-5 years) than in older animals. Serum CK activity was higher in males than in females. CONCLUSION: The data reported here may be useful in monitoring the health of ringed seals and for tracking the impact of environmental changes in the Arctic.

Aging↗

PubMed1985

Potential uses of sea urchin embryos for identifying toxic chemicals: description of a bioassay incorporating cytologic, cytogenetic and embryologic endpoints.

A method for evaluating pollutant genotoxicity, embryotoxicity and teratogenicity using sea urchin embryos has been developed and was tested using benzo(a)pyrene (BP). Initial results suggested that the bioassay may be a sensitive indicator of pollutant toxicity and mutagenicity since several endpoints can be simultaneously assessed. The bioassay is rapid, inexpensive and appears applicable to a variety of toxicants and delivery methods. The test is based upon the standard 48 h sea urchin development assay and incorporates cytologic-cytogenetic analysis of embryos. Following toxic exposure of gametes, fertilization success is assessed. Embryos then develop for 48 h at which time survival and teratogenesis are evaluated. A subsample of embryos is stained and dissociated into monolayers and mitotic configurations are examined using light microscopy. Embryo mitotic rates are used as an indicator of overall embryonic health. Cytotoxic effects are concomitantly evaluated. Genotoxicity is measured using two methods: (1) anaphase aberration analysis, a technique which assesses abnormalities in the chromosome configurations (such as bridges and fragments) as the groups of chromosomes move to opposite poles and (2) micronucleus formation, a procedure examining the incidence of smaller, secondary nuclei composed of whole chromosomes or chromatid fragments. These two measurements preclude the need to examine individual chromosomes for deletions and exchanges, a laborious process in most aquatic organisms which possess numerous relatively small chromosomes. This genotoxicity-teratogenicity test appears promising for laboratory evaluations of individual substances or of complex chemical mixtures as well as for environmental monitoring of nearshore areas. The standard development assay has been used to screen pharmaceuticals and environmental contaminants and some recent investigations have included mitotic aberration analysis. Experiments in our laboratory suggest that the genotoxicity-teratogenicity test may be a feasible approach to field monitoring. Mutagen loads of spawning adult urchins could be assessed by conducting cytologic-cytogenetic analysis of resulting embryos although initial studies suggest that this method is less sensitive than direct embryo exposures.

Animal Testing Alternatives↗

PubMed1980

Biomonitoring of industrial solvent exposures in workers' alveolar air.

Ten different solvents, viz., toluene, styrene, methylethyl ketone, acetone, dimethylformamide, cyclohexane, n-hexane, methylcyclopentane, 2-methylpentane, and 3-methylpentane were determined in environmental air and in the alveolar air of workers during the work shift. As regards all ten solvents studied, alveolar concentration (Ca) and the difference between environmental concentration (Ci) and alveolar concentration (Ci-Ca), were correlated with environmental concentration. According to the slopes of the regression lines, the ratio between alveolar and environmental concentration (Ca/Ci) and the alveolar retention ((Ci-Ca)/Ci) in the case of all ten solvents studied were complementary, i.e., their sum was equal to unity. The solvents with high solubility in blood, i.e., toluene, styrene, methylethyl ketone, acetone, and dimethylformamide showed a Ca/Ci ratio lower than 0.5 and the solvents with low solubility, i.e., cyclohexane, hexane, and their isomers showed a Ca/Ci ratio higher than 0.5. According to the findings which prove that the alveolar concentration of all solvents studied during the work shift is a function of variations in the environmental concentrations it seems reasonable to suggest the use of alveolar tests for monitoring environmental exposure to solvents during the work shift.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed2005

Complying with Executive Order 13148 using the Enterprise Environmental Safety And Occupational Health Management Information System.

All U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) facilities are required under Executive Order (EO) 13148, "Greening the Government through Leadership in Environmental Management," to establish quality-based environmental management systems (EMSs) that support environmental decision-making and verification of continuous environmental improvement by December 31, 2005. Compliance with EO 13148 as well as other federal, state, and local environmental regulations places a significant information management burden on DoD facilities. Cost-effective management of environmental data compels DoD facilities to establish robust database systems that not only address the complex and multifaceted environmental monitoring, record-keeping, and reporting requirements demanded by these rules but enable environmental management decision-makers to gauge improvements in environmental performance. The Enterprise Environmental Safety and Occupational Health Management Information System (EESOH-MIS) is a new electronic database developed by the U.S. Air Force to manage both the data needs associated with regulatory compliance programs across its facilities as well as the non-regulatory environmental information that supports installation business practices. The U.S. Air Force, which has adopted the Plan-Do-Check-Act methodology as the EMS standard that it will employ to address EO 13148 requirements.

Decision Making↗

PubMed1984

Round robin investigation of methods for recovering human enteric viruses from sludge.

To select a tentative standard method for detection of viruses in sludge the American Society for Testing and Materials D19:24:04:04 Subcommittee Task Group initiated round robin comparative testing of two procedures that, after initial screening of several methodologies, were found to meet the basic criteria considered essential by the task group. Eight task group member laboratories agreed to perform round robin testing of the two candidate methods, namely, The Environmental Protection Agency or low pH-AlCl3 method and the Glass or sonication-extraction method. Five different types of sludge were tested. For each particular type of sludge, a single laboratory was designated to collect the sludge in a single sampling, make samples, and ship it to the participating laboratories. In most cases, participating laboratories completed all the tests within 48 h of sample arrival. To establish the reproducibility of the methods, each laboratory tested each sludge sample in triplicate for the two candidate virus methods. Each processed sludge sample was quantitatively assayed for viruses by the procedures of each individual round robin laboratory. To attain a more uniform standard of comparison, a sample of each processed sample from all laboratories was reassayed with one cell line and passage number by a single laboratory (Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio). When the data were statistically analyzed, the Environmental Protection Agency method was found to yield slightly higher virus recoveries for all sludge types, except the dewatered sludge. The precisions of both methods were not significantly different.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aluminum↗

PubMed1999

Population health environmental indicators: ecologic monitoring of environment-related health and disease trends.

BACKGROUND: Current State of the Environment (SoE) reporting focuses primarily on indicators directly related to the physical environment such as climate, and air, water and soil quality. As the environment has both direct and indirect effects on human health, an opportunity exists to include environment-related human disease indicators as an SoE indicator theme. OBJECTIVE: To develop a set of population health environmental indicators (PHEIs, phi s) that can illustrate environment-related disease (ERD) trends at the population level. METHODS: A literature review was conducted on environmental health monitoring and the current knowledge of environmental effects on human health. Key PHEIs were identified and routine health data collections accessed and analysed to illustrate temporal and geographic trends. RESULTS: Diseases with an environmental aetiology are tabulated and examples are given of the type and range of PHEIs that can be developed for an Australian geographic area. CONCLUSIONS: Illustrating environmental degradation in terms of resultant human diseases is a potent tool for promoting environmental protection measures. This paper examines a range of PHEIs that may be used as indicators of both environmental disease and environmental quality. IMPLICATIONS: PHEIs could be developed as a useful SoE indicator theme, and as a tool to help foster the convergence which is occurring between environmental health and public health fields.

Australia↗