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PubMed2001

Monitoring of indoor volatile organic compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons arising from kerosene cooking fuel.

Air samples, representing indoor environments of a kitchen in which a kerosene stove was used were collected and analysed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) viz., n-hexane, benzene, heptane, toluene, p- and o-xylene and n-decane using a cryogenic preconcentration system and a gas chromatograph with a flame-ionisation detector. Simultaneous outdoor samples were also collected to determine indoor to outdoor (I/O) ratios for each compound. Reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultra violet absorption detection was optimised for separation and quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air particulate matter. Concentration of total suspended particulate matter (TSPM), benzene soluble organics and the PAHs in air samples collected in indoor environment of some tenements at Trombay, Mumbai where kerosene is used as cooking fuel are discussed in relation to the concentration of the same in outdoor environment in vicinity of the tenement. VOCs and PAHs results from samples collected in kitchens in Trombay are discussed in relation to indoor air pollution.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed2001

Indoor air quality at restaurants with different styles of cooking in metropolitan Hong Kong.

Indoor air quality (IAQ) of a restaurant has increasingly received a lot of public concerns in Hong Kong. Unfortunately, there is limited data about the IAQ of Hong Kong restaurants. In order to characterize the current IAQ of local restaurants, four restaurants in metropolitan Hong Kong including a Korean barbecue style restaurant, a Chinese hot pot restaurant, a Chinese dim sum restaurant and a Western canteen were selected for this study. The results of this study showed that the mean concentrations of CO2 at restaurants with gas stoves for food cooking in dining areas exceeded the range from 40 to 60% indoor CO2 concentrations at restaurants without gas stoves in dining areas. The average levels of PM10 and PM2.5 at the Korean barbecue style restaurant were as high as 1442 and 1167 microg/m3, respectively. At the Korean barbecue and Chinese hot pot restaurants, the levels of PM2.5 accounted for 80-93% of their respective PM10 concentrations. The 1-h average levels of CO observed at Korean barbecue style and hot pot restaurants were 15,100 and 8000 microg/m3, respectively. Relatively high concentrations of CO2, CO, PM10, PM2.5 benzene, toluene, methylene chloride and chloroform were measured in the dining areas of the Korean barbecue style and the Chinese hot pot restaurants. The operations of pan-frying food and boiling food with soup in a hot pot could generate considerable quantities of air pollutants.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed1998

Impact of safe water for drinking and cooking on five arsenic-affected families for 2 years in West Bengal, India.

The groundwater in seven districts of West Bengal, India, covering an area of 37,000 km2 with a population of 34 million, has been contaminated with arsenic. In 830 villages/wards more than 1.5 million people, out of the total population, drink the arsenic-contaminated water. Safe water from a source having < 0.002 mg 1(-1) arsenic has been supplied for 2 years to five affected families comprising 17 members (eight of them with arsenical skin-lesions) of different age groups for impact assessment study in terms of loss of arsenic through urine, hair and nail. The study indicates random observable fluctuations of arsenic concentration in urine among members on different scheduled sampling days with a declining trend, particularly during the first 6 months. Furthermore, the investigation showed that despite having safe water for drinking and cooking, the study group could not avoid an intake of arsenic, time and again, through edible herbs grown in contaminated water, food materials contaminated through washing, and the occasional drinking of contaminated water. After minimizing the level of contamination, a noteworthy declining trend after 8 months was observed in urine, hair and nails in all the cases, but not to that level observed in a normal population, due to prevailing elevated background level of arsenic in the area. The eight members, who had already developed skin lesions, are far from recovering completely, indicating a long-lasting damage. Statistical interpretation of the data are considered.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Antimicrobial effect of natural preservatives in a cooked and acidified chicken meat model.

The inhibitory effect of Microgard 100, Microgard 300, nisin, Alta 2002, Perlac 1902, sodium lactate and essential oil of mustard on microorganisms experimentally inoculated was screened in an acidified chicken meat model (pH = 5.0) and stored for 2 weeks at a none restrictive growth temperature of 22 degrees C. All antimicrobials tested were used at the highest concentration recommended by their manufacturer. Sausage batter made with mechanically deboned chicken was inoculated with a mixed culture of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Brochothrix thermosphacta CRDAV452, and a protective culture Lactobacillus alimentarius BJ33 (FloraCan L-2). A final cell concentration of 3-4 log CFU g (-1) was targeted after cooking at a core temperature of 55 degrees C for each microorganism in order to assess cell count variation effectively. Composition, water activity (a(w)), pH and redox potential of the sausage model was also evaluated. The E. coli population decreased steadily during storage and was close or below detection level (< 1 log CFU g (-1)) for all treatments, including the control, after 14 days. Sodium lactate was most effective against B. thermosphacta; population was 4 log lower than the control after 14 days of storage. When essential oil of mustard was used, aerobic mesophilic bacteria and lactic acid bacteria were significantly lower than the control after 2 days of storage (P < or = 0.05). The other antimicrobial agents tested had no significant effect on the aerobic mesophilic bacteria, E. coli, B. thermosphacta and lactic acid bacteria counts, when compared to the control.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

An in vitro model system to predict the bioaccessibility of heterocyclic amines from a cooked meat matrix.

To understand the impact of variation in digestion parameters on the release of heterocyclic amines naturally formed during cooking, we developed and characterized a model system to assess the effect of amylase, pepsin, and pancreatin on digestion of well-done chicken. The amounts of MeIQx, DiMeIQx, IFP, and PhIP in the liquid portion of the digestate were compared to levels in the undigested meat to determine the percentage released (accessible fraction). Incubating the meat with amylase and pepsin did not change the accessibility of HAs when compared to incubation with water alone. In contrast, increasing amounts of pancreatin increased the accessibility up to 6.4-fold. Comparing the amounts of the HAs in the liquid to the solid fraction showed that there was more MeIQx, DiMeIQx, and IFP in the liquid fraction. In contrast, PhIP was equally divided between the solid and liquid fractions. For all four compounds, increasing the doneness of the meat decreased the amount of the compound accessible from the meat matrix. Our data suggest that bioaccessability of HAs may vary according to the polarity of the individual HAs and also may depend upon the doneness of the meat. These results may have important ramifications for human feeding studies, which assume that the total amount of each HA in the meat matrix is equally bioavailable.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Formation of mutagens in cooked foods. I. Beef.

Mutagens detectable by Salmonella typhimurium TA98, after activation by liver S-9 fraction, are formed when meat is cooked by frying, broiling and boiling. High levels of mutagenic activity are formed rapidly when frying, or more slowly during broiling. Formation of mutagens in boiled beef stock requires several days under reflux, but shows a strong concentration dependence. Time curves suggest that a period exists during which mutagens are not readily formed; however, after this period mutagen production is rapid. Hamburgers from commercial franchises were frequently mutagenically active.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

"Cook Weekend Alternative to the Facelift". Liposculpture of the face, neck, and jowls with laser dermal resurfacing and platysmal plication.

The "Cook Weekend Alternative to the Facelift" is a combined liposculpture and laser surgical procedure which produces excellent cosmetic results, in many cases comparable to the results of traditional surgical rhytidectomy, without the extensive surgical intervention and prolonged recovery time needed for rhytidectomy. The procedure consists of liposculpture of the face, neck, and jowls; laser resurfacing of the platysma and underside of the dermis; vaporization of subcutaneous fat; resection of a small ellipse of excess submental skin; separation of the neck septa; and plication of the platysma, with or without chin augmentation. Cosmetic results can be dramatic, and most patients return to normal activities approximately three days postoperatively.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Mutagenic and carcinogenic heterocyclic amines as affected by muscle types/skin and cooking in pan-roasted mackerel.

The dependence on muscle types/skin and on degrees of cooking in the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) of pan-roasted mackerel was studied. High levels of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) were found in very well done skin and ordinary muscle, being 4.2 and 5.3 ng/g, followed by 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx), being 1.8 and 2.1 ng/g and 2-amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AalphaC), being 1.2 and 2.8 ng/g, respectively. In pan-roasted mackerel, ordinary muscles contributed much more greatly to the formation of HCAs than skins due to its higher HCA contents and composition (76.1%).

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Tea polyphenols inhibit the formation of mutagens during the cooking of meat.

Powerful mutagens are formed during the broiling or frying of meat. These mutagens cause specific cancers in animal models, and epidemiological studies suggest that they increase the risk of breast and colon cancer. It is important, therefore, to inhibit the formation of these mutagens. Application of tea polyphenols, polyphenon 60 from green tea, and polyphenon B from black tea, to both surfaces of ground beef before cooking inhibits the formation of the mutagens in a dose-related fashion. This procedure is simple and effective, and utilizes inexpensive tea, a product that deserves consideration for practical use.

Animals↗
PubMed1974

The growth of salmonellas on cooked cured pork.

With the use of streptomycin-resistant mutants to facilitate recovery, 5 strains of 4 species of Salmonella were shown to grow rapidly at 22 degrees C. on low salt ham even from an inoculum of 10-20 organisms. S. pullorum did not grow well. All 6 strains of Salmonella survived but did not grow on ;high salt ham'. We conclude that cooked ham containing approximately 2.8 g. NaCl/100 g. H(2)O once infected is more likely to give rise to food poisoning than is ham with the higher salt content traditionally used.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Risk factors for pneumonia in infants and young children and the role of solid fuel for cooking: a case-control study.

We evaluated the risk factors for childhood pneumonia with particular reference to indoor air-pollution associated with solid fuel use for cooking (e.g. coal, wood, dung), using a case-control study in a children's hospital in Calcutta. Cases were 127 children aged 2-35 months of either sex admitted with pneumonia and controls were 135 children attending their immunization clinic. Solid fuel use (odds ratio = 3.97, CI = 2.00-7.88), history of asthma in the child (OR = 5.49, CI = 2.37-12.74), poor economic status indicator (OR = 4.95, CI = 2.38 to 10.28), keeping large animals (OR = 6.03, CI = 1.13-32.27) were associated with high risk of pneumonia after adjusting for confounding (logistic regression analysis). Nearly 80% of people in India use such smoke producing fuel and the population attributable risk would be very high. This finding has important health policy implications. Furthermore, history of asthma is a useful prognostic indicator for early action for prevention of severe pneumonia.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed2002

Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, toxicity, and mutagenicity from domestic cooking using sawdust briquettes, wood, and kerosene.

Smoke samples, in both gas and particulate matter (PM) phases, of the three domestic stoves were collected using U.S. EPA modified method 5 and were analyzed for 17 PAH (HPLC-UV), acute toxicity (Microtox test), and mutagenicity (Amestest). The gas phase of smoke contributed > or = 95% of 17 PAH, > or = 96% of toxicity, and > or = 60% of mutagenicity. The highest emission factor of 17 PAH was from sawdust briquettes (260 mg/kg), but the highest emission of 11 genotoxic PAH was from kerosene (28 mg/kg). PM samples of kerosene smoke were not toxic. The total toxicity emission factor was the highest from sawdust, followed by kerosene and wood fuel. Smoke samples from the kerosene stove were not mutagenic. TA98 indicated the presence of both direct and indirect mutagenic activities in PM samples of sawdust and wood fuel but only direct mutagenic activities in the gas phase. TA100 detected only direct mutagenic activities in both PM and gas-phase samples. The higher mutagenicity emission factor was from wood fuel, 12 x 10(6) revertants/kg (TA100-S9) and 3.5 x 10(6) (TA98-S9), and lower from sawdust, 2.9 x 10(6) (TA100-S9) and 2.8 x 10(6) (TA98-S9). The low burning rate and high efficiency of a kerosene stove have resulted in the lowest PAH, toxicity, and mutagenicity emissions from daily cooking activities. The bioassays produced toxicity and mutagenicity results in correspondence with the PAH content of samples. The tests could be used for a quick assessment of potential health risks.

Cooking↗
PubMed2002

Comparison of key aroma compounds in cooked brown rice varieties based on aroma extract dilution analyses.

The aroma compounds present in cooked brown rice of the three varieties Improved Malagkit Sungsong (IMS), Basmati 370 (B 370), and Khaskhani (KK), and of the variety Indica (German supermarket sample), were identified on the basis of aroma extract dilution analyses (AEDA). A total of 41 odor-active compounds were identified, of which eleven are reported for the first time as rice constituents. 2-Amino acetophenone (medicinal, phenolic), which was up to now unknown in rice aroma, exhibited the highest flavor dilution (FD) factor among the 30 to 39 odor-active compounds detected in all four varieties. 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline, exhibiting an intense popcorn-like aroma-note, was confirmed as a further key aroma constituent in IMS, B 370, and KK, but was not important in Indica. Differences in the FD factors between the varieties were found for the previously unknown rice aroma compound 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone (Sotolon; seasoning-like), which was higher in B 370 than in IMS and KK. In IMS, a yet unknown, spicy smelling component with a very high FD factor could be detected, which contributed with lower FD factors to the overall aromas of B 370 and KK, and was not present in Indica. The latter variety, which was available on the German market, differed most in its overall aroma from the three Asian brown rices.

Cooking↗
PubMed2002

Effect of temperature and pH on the generation of flavor volatiles in extrusion cooking of wheat flour.

Extrusion temperature (120, 135, and 150 degrees C) and quantity of added sodium hydroxide (0, 3, and 6 g/kg feedstock) were used as variables to study flavor generation in extrusion cooking of wheat flour. In total, 127 volatile components were identified in the extrudates, of which 51 contained sulfur. The levels of pyrroles, thiophenes, thiophenones, thiapyrans, and thiazolines increased at higher extrusion temperatures, whereas furans and aldehydes decreased. The addition of sodium hydroxide also affected the formation of volatile compounds. However, thiophenes, thiophenones, polythiacycloalkanes, thiazoles, thiazolines, pyrroles, and some pyrazines tended to increase with the more alkaline extrusion conditions. Some compounds from lipid-Maillard interactions were identified in the extrudates. Analysis of the volatile components by gas chromatography-olfactometry showed sulfur- and nitrogen-sulfur-containing heterocycles as possible contributors to the sulfury and rubbery odors observed in extrudates produced at the higher temperature and more alkaline conditions.

Cooking↗
PubMed2004

Effects of different cooking procedures on lipid quality and cholesterol oxidation of farmed salmon fish (Salmo salar).

Salmon fillets were steamed, or pan-fried without oil, with olive oil, with corn oil, or with partially hydrogenated plant oil. The exchange between the salmon and the pan-frying oils was marginal, but it was detectable as slight modifications in the fatty acid pattern and the tocopherol contents according to the oil used. Primary and secondary oxidation products were only slightly increased or remained unchanged, which indicated a slight lipid oxidation effect due to the heating procedures applied. The same was observed for tocopherol levels, which remained almost stable and were not affected by the oxidation process. The sum of cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) increased after the heating processes from 0.9 microg/g in the raw sample to 6.0, 4.0, 4.4, 3.3, and 9.9 microg/g extracted fat in pan-fried without oil, with olive oil, corn oil, partially hydrogenated plant oil, and steamed, respectively. A highly significant correlation was found between the fatty acid pattern and the total amount of COPs (r2 = 0.973, p < 0.001). No change has been determined in the n-3 fatty acids content and in the polyunsaturated/saturated-ratio of the cooked salmon fillets. Moderate pan-frying (6 min total) and steaming (12 min) of salmon did not accelerate lipid oxidation but significantly increased the content of COPs. The highest increase of COPs was found through steaming, mainly due to the longer heat exposure. The used frying oils did not influence the outcome; no significant difference between heat treatment with or without oil has been determined.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Determination of total riboflavin in cooked sausages.

A simple and rapid method for determining riboflavin content in cooked sausages by ion-pair reversed-phase liquid chromatography has been set up. Samples were subjected to acid and enzymatic hydrolysis. Sample extracts were directly chromatographed, avoiding purification and concentration treatment. Final determination was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (excitation, 227 nm; emission, 520 nm), on a 25 cm x 4 mm i.d. Spherisorb ODS-2 cartridge using a mixture of 5 mM heptanesulfonic acid adjusted to pH 2.7 with phosphoric acid and acetonitrile (75:25, v/v) as mobile phase. Precision of the method was 1.3% (within a day) and 2.6% (between days). The detection limit was 0.015 mg/100 g. The recovery was >95%.

Amylases↗
PubMed2000

Critical comparison of three olfactometric methods for the identification of the most potent odorants in cooked mussels (Mytilus edulis).

Three olfactometric methods (olfactometry global analysis, OSME, and AEDA) were compared to evaluate the main impact odorants of cooked mussels. The results obtained from these methods were very similar and well correlated. On the basis of the three techniques, 42 odor-active compounds were detected and 28 were identified. Among these compounds, 6 odorants seem to contribute actively to the aroma of mussels: 2,3-butanedione (4) (buttery, caramel-like odor), (Z)-4-heptenal (14) (boiled potato-like odor), (E)-2-penten-1-ol (17) (mushroom-like odor), 2-ethylpyrazine (19) (nutty odor), methional (25) (boiled potato-like odor), and (E,E)-2,4-octadienal (32) (cucumber-like odor).

Aldehydes↗
PubMed2000

Volatile compounds produced from monosodium glutamate in common food cooking.

A mixture of soybean oil and/or water, sugar and/or monosodium glutamate (MSG) was water-boiled or oil-heated at 100, 120, 140, 160, or 170 degrees C, respectively, and volatile compounds produced were isolated by solid-phase microextraction and then identified by GC and GC/MS. Oxidative thermal degradation products of fatty acids (OTDPFA) were the major volatile compounds detected for all water-boiled samples. When MSG and sugar were heated together, 2, 5-dimethyl pyrazine and methyl pyrazine were also detected at or after 160 min heating. Water added in soybean oil increased OTDPFA production. In oil-heated samples of soybean oil alone, soybean oil with MSG, and soybean oil with sugar, OTDPFA were also the major compounds found. The samples containing MSG also produced 2-pyrrolidone, and the samples containing sugar also produced furfural and 5-hydroxy methyl furfural. The samples containing soybean oil, sugar, and MSG produced 23 pyrazines, OTDPFA, and gamma-butyrolactone as the major volatile compounds. The contents of OTDPFA were lower in MSG plus sugar and MSG-added samples, and it is postulated that antioxidant activities were produced in cooking.

Chromatography, Gas↗