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PubMed2003

Sensorimotor deficits and increased brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptors following exposure to chlorpyrifos and/or nicotine in rats.

Despite well-known adverse effects associated with cigarette smoking, approximately 20% of the US population continues to smoke and many more are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. Many of the same individuals are also exposed to environmental neurotoxic chemicals such as the organophosphorus insecticide chlorpyrifos. In the present study, the effects of exposure to low doses of nicotine and chlorpyrifos alone and in combination, were studied on the central cholinergic system and sensorimotor performance in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (250-300 g) were treated with nicotine (1 mg/kg s.c., in normal saline), chlorpyrifos (0.1 mg/kg dermally, in 0.1 ml 70% ethanol), or a combination of both, daily for 30 days. Control rats were treated with saline and dermally with ethanol. Sensorimotor behavior was evaluated 24 h following the last dose using a battery of tests. There was a significant deficit in incline plane performance, beam-walk score and beam-walk time following exposure to each chemical, alone or in combination. The deficit in incline plane performance was greater when the two chemicals were given in combination than with either compound alone. Biochemical analysis showed a decrease in cerebellar and an increase in midbrain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity following combined exposure. Exposure to nicotine alone resulted in a significant increase in AChE activity in brainstem and midbrain, whereas there was no significant change after exposure to chlorpyrifos, alone. A significant increase in ligand binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) was observed in brainstem and cortex following exposure to nicotine or chlorpyrifos. This was further augmented with combined exposure, which caused a modest but significant increase in m2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (m2-mAChR) ligand binding in the cortex. These data suggest that exposure to either nicotine or chlorpyrifos or a combination of the two may impair neurobehavioral performance and affect the central nervous system cholinergic pathways.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed1997

Alterations in mystacial pad innervation in the aged rat.

It is well established that sensory perception becomes impaired with advancing age and that, in parallel, dystrophy and degeneration of axons occur in sensory pathways. In this study, the impact of aging was examined in the mystacial pad, which receives a large variety of sensory nerve endings organized in a highly predictable pattern. Mystacial pad specimens from aged (30 months old) and young adult (2-3 months old) female Sprague-Dawley rats were processed, in parallel, for immunohistochemical analyses with antibodies against human neuronal cytoplasmic protein (protein gene product 9.5), transmitter enzymes, and several neuropeptides. Several changes in cutaneous innervation including both degenerative and regenerative processes were evident in the aged rat: (1) the Merkel endings and lanceolate endings that emanate from large-caliber afferents in the whisker follicles were reduced and showed signs of degeneration. Furthermore, a reduction of piloneural complexes at the intervibrissal hairs were evident, but only in aged rats that showed more severe behavioral sensorimotor disturbances. In contrast, Ruffini endings as well as mechanoreceptors emanating from medium-caliber axons, i.e., transverse lanceolate and reticular endings, appeared normal. (2) A reduction was evident among two sets of unmyelinated epidermal endings; however, the epidermal innervation affiliated with the intervibrissal hairs appeared normal in the aged rat. (3) A loss of sympathetic neuropeptide tyrosine (NPY) or tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (IR) and somatosensory Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-IR perivascular axons was paralleled by an increase in presumed parasympathetic NPY/CGRP-IR axons. (4) Two "novel" networks of fine-caliber axons were observed in the outer and inner root sheaths of the whisker follicles in the aged rat. (5) NPY was present in a population of small-caliber, somatosensory CGRP-IR axons in the aged rat. This may represent a de novo synthesis, since, normally, NPY-like immunoreactivity is not observed in this set of axons. Our results suggest that the sensory impairments occurring with advancing age are part of a peripheral process instigated by changes in nerve-target interactions and/or incapacitation of the neuronal machinery to sustain the axonal integrity.

Aging↗
PubMed1985

Naltrexone's influence on neurobehavioral development.

The ontogeny of spontaneous motor and sensorimotor behaviors of preweaning rats, as well as ambulation, emotionality, and nociception at weaning (day 21), were studied in rats given chronic administration of 1 or 50 mg/kg naltrexone from birth to day 21. The age at which a specific spontaneous motor behavior or performance initially appeared and the age at which 100% of the animals demonstrated a particular behavior were accelerated in animals given 50 mg/kg naltrexone, but delayed in rats injected with 1 mg/kg naltrexone. In general, ambulation, emotionality, and nociceptive responses were not affected by naltrexone treatment, although the frequency of face-washing in both naltrexone groups and activity cage performance in the 50 mg/kg naltrexone group deviated from control levels. Observations of head-shake and wet-dog shake behaviors in naltrexone-treated animals at 2 hr and 10 hr post-drug injection were similar to controls with the exception of an abnormal increase in the 1 mg/kg naltrexone group at 10 hr. Although these results may imply that endogenous opioid systems play a role in regulating neurobehavioral development, further study is needed to distinguish whether these changes are a consequence of the somatic and morphological alterations known to occur with naltrexone administration or if the timetable of behavioral ontogeny is governed by endorphin-opiate receptor interaction.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Interactions between D1 and muscarinic receptors in the induction of striatal c-fos in rats depleted of dopamine as neonates.

The contributions of striatal D1 receptors to the expression of sensorimotor behavior are qualitatively different in rats depleted of dopamine (DA) as neonates vs. as adults. In an effort to reveal neuronal mechanisms underlying these behavioral difference we determined the effects of the partial D1 agonist SKF 38393, the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine, and the combination of the two drugs on the induction of c-fos in the striatum and its projection sites, the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Adult rats, given intracerebroventricular injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA, 50 micrograms/5 microliters/hemisphere) or its vehicle on postnatal day 3, were treated with SKF 38393 (1.5 mg/kg, i.p.), scopolamine (5.0 mg/kg, i.p.) or the combination of the two drugs. There was no significant induction of c-fos in vehicle-treated controls, regardless of drug administration. In DA-depleted rats, scopolamine also did not induce c-fos whereas SKF 38393 produced a significant increases in the number of FOS-positive cells in the dorsal, but not ventral, striatum. The combined administration of scopolamine and SKF 38393 resulted in a potent synergism in the number of FOS-positive cells in DA-depleted rats. These interactions between lesion condition and drugs on c-fos induction were not secondary to differences in drug-induced behavioral activity. Activity levels were no different in vehicle vs. DA-depleted rats following the combined administration of scopolamine + SKF 38393, yet the two groups of rats exhibited marked differences in the density of FOS-positive striatal neurons. The effects of scopolamine and SKF 38393 on c-fos induction in striatum are qualitatively similar to those reported in rats DA-depleted as adults and suggest that, at this single-label level of analysis, the ability of D1 and muscarinic receptors to influence striatal activity does not contribute to the marked age-related differences in the behavioral effects of DA depletions.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

A system of personal computer control programs for tapping experiments.

A system of control and measuring programs on IBM-PC or compatible computers was developed to explore the precision and accuracy of a subject's timing mechanisms in sensorimotor behavior. Various rhythmic patterns composed of several accentuated and non-accentuated tones which the subject has to follow or to reproduce by finger tapping can be designed. All parameters of the stimulus tones, i.e., duration, pitch and inter-tone pause, in a pattern are variable. Two parallel, independent responses can be monitored simultaneously as well. In this way, the mutual influence of responses of two subjects or two responses of one subject can be analyzed. The programs are written in MODULA-2, the output data are in the ASCII format and can be processed by any common statistical package.

Data Interpretation, Statistical↗
PubMed1988

Acute stress or neuroleptics elicit sensorimotor deficits in MPTP-treated mice.

The present study evaluates the effects of MPTP-induced striatal DA depletions on sensorimotor behavior in mice. While MPTP produces no obvious behavioral deficits under normal conditions, acute stress (cold swim) or injection of low doses of haloperidol results in marked akinesia, catalepsy, and sensory neglect. Thus, significant behavioral impairments do accompany the neurotoxicity observed after MPTP administration in mice and render this a valuable animal model for studying mechanisms underlying Parkinson's disease.

1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine↗
PubMed2005

Immunohistochemical distribution of MIZIP and its co-expression with the Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1 in the adult rodent brain.

We have recently identified a Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1 interacting zinc-finger protein (MIZIP) from a human brain cDNA library. Here, we report the generation of a specific antibody against MIZIP and its distribution in rodent tissues using immunoblotting and immunohistochemical techniques. MIZIP was detected as a 27 kDa protein in brain, liver, and skeletal muscle, and to a lower extend, in lung, testis, and heart. Subcellular fractionation of adult mouse brain revealed the presence of MIZIP and MCHR1 in the cytoplasmic, membrane, and synaptosomal fraction, but not in a postsynaptic density preparation. In cultured rat, embryonic hippocampal neurons MIZIP is somatodendritically localized. In the adult rodent brain, MIZIP is widely distributed. High levels of expression were detected in brain regions involved in olfaction, feeding behavior, sensorimotor integration, and learning and memory, for example, the olfactory bulb, the olfactory tubercle, the caudate putamen, the thalamus and hypothalamus, the nucleus accumbens, the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus formation, and the cerebellum. Co-expression of MIZIP and MCHR1 was observed, for example, in pyramidal neurons of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, in neurons of the olivary nucleus, lateral hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, caudate putamen, pontine, and mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus. However, there are also differences in the expression patterns, for example, high expression of MCHR1 was detected in the lateral habenula, but no expression of MIZIP. These data support the notion that MIZIP might interact with MCHR1 in a cell type specific manner in vivo, suggesting a role in the regulation of MCH signalling in distinct regions of the mammalian brain.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Effects of chronic dizocilpine on acute pain and on mRNA expression of neuropeptides and the dopamine and glutamate receptors.

The mesocorticolimbic circuitry has been implicated in the pathophysiology of several neuropsychiatric syndromes like chronic pain and addiction. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dizocilpine (MK-801), a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, on sensorimotor behaviors and the consequent changes in the dopamine, glutamate, and opiate systems in rats. Five groups of rats were subjected to acute tests for nociception (hot plate and paw pressure) before and after MK-801 (0.05, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline. Another two groups received daily i.p. saline or MK-801 (0.4 mg/kg) for 15 days. The nociceptive tests were performed on days 1, 7, and 14. On day 15 the rats received the last injection and were immediately sacrificed. We measured the mRNA expression, by in situ hybridization (ISH), of various dopamine and glutamate receptors, and enkephalin (Enk), dynorphin (Dyn), and substance P (SP) in the striatum, nucleus accumbens (NAC), piriform and cingulate cortex. Acute MK-801, dose-dependently, resulted in hyperalgesia. The chronic effects of 0.4 mg/kg MK-801 showed an extinction of the acute hyperalgesic effects especially with the hot plate test. The ISH studies revealed a decrease in mRNA expression of Enk and SP in the striatum and NAC. Our results indicate that the reversal of acute MK-801-induced hyperalgesia, with repeated exposure to systemic MK-801, is not directly related to changes in dopamine and glutamate receptors and might involve alteration of the striatal neuropeptide system.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Anatomical, electrophysiological and pharmacological studies of ascending brainstem hippocampal synchronizing pathways.

The present review has provided evidence that very potent ascending brainstem hippocampal synchronizing pathways originate in the rostral pons region (RPO and PPT), and ascend to and synapse with several midline caudal diencephalic nuclei (posterior hypothalamic and supramammillary) which send projections to the medial septal region (MS/vDBB). The medial septal region in turn is a critical nodal point, sending projections to limbic structures such as the hippocampal formation, cingulate cortex, and entorhinal cortex. The pontine and diencephalic nuclei appear to play a critical role in determining the translation of increasing levels of activation into moment to moment changes in the frequency of hippocampal theta field and theta-related cellular discharges, relayed to the MS/vDBB nuclei. The MS/vDBB nuclei appear to play a critical role in translating increasing levels of ascending synchronizing activation into moment to moment changes in the amplitude of hippocampal theta field activity and the accompanying rate and pattern of phasic theta-ON cells. The MS/vDBB carries out this role through a balance of activity in the septohippocampal cholinergic and GABA-ergic projections. Cholinergic projections provide the afferent excitatory drive for hippocampal theta-ON cells and the GABA-ergic projections act to reduce the overall level of inhibition by inhibiting hippocampal GABA-ergic interneurons (theta-OFF cells). Both activities must be present for the generation of hippocampal theta and theta-related cellular activities. The balance between the cholinergic and GABA-ergic projections may determine whether hippocampal synchrony (theta) or asynchrony (LIA, large amplitude irregular activity) occurs. These same ascending pathways influence the electrophysiological and pharmacological properties of the neocortex as well. The functional significance of the ascending brainstem synchronizing pathways is the generalized regulation of activities in these cortical structures as they relate to sensorimotor behavior.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Retardation of cognitive aging by life-long diet restriction: implications for genetic variance.

Long-term moderate dietary restriction (DR) has been reported to extend life spans, delay the onset and decrease the incidence of a broad spectrum of age-associated diseases; however, its effect on cognition is still unclear. Our previous results indicated that long-term DR failed to retard cognitive and psychomotor aging in the inbred strain, Fischer-344 rats. In the present experiment, an anti-aging effect of DR on various types of cognitive and sensorimotor behaviors was found in F1 hybrid Fischer-344 x Brown Norway (F-344xBN) rats, while no effect of DR was detected in the second parental inbred strain, Brown-Norway (BN) rats. These findings show that the lack of an effect of DR on cognitive aging, which was previously found in Fischer-344 rats, is not a universal phenomenon. Instead, the effect of DR may depend upon the genetic makeup of the animals. Thus, a more diverse genetic milieu, such as in hybrid rats, relative to inbred rats, may increase the susceptibility to an effect of DR on age-related cognitive decline.

Aging↗
PubMed2000

Enoxaparin, a low molecular weight heparin decreases infarct size and improves sensorimotor function in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia.

Possible neuroprotective effects of the low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) enoxaparin sodium (Lovenox) were evaluated in a rat model of focal ischemia. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 90 min of occlusion of the right middle cerebral artery using the intraluminal suture method. Enoxaparin at doses of 0, 10 or 15 mg/kg was administered to groups of rats 1, 8, 24 and 32 h after artery occlusion. Motor impairment was evaluated by performance on the traverse beam and accelerating rotarod tests. Animals were sacrificed 48 h after occlusion and brain sections were stained with 2% 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride for determination of infarct volume. Forty percent of the rats receiving 15 mg/kg enoxaparin died as a result of intracranial hemorrhage. Untreated rats exhibited large lesions involving the caudate putamen and much of the cortex. In enoxaparin - treated rats the damage was mainly confined to the caudate putamen. The sensorimotor behavior of the 10 mg/kg enoxaparin group was significantly better than that of untreated animals. Motor performance of the survivors in the 15 mg/kg group was poor due to hypoactivity and weakness resulting from excessive bleeding. These results suggest that LMWH may have a neuroprotective function.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Reciprocal changes in the expression of neurotrophin mRNAs in target tissues and peripheral nerves of aged rats.

trk receptors are downregulated in both dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and spinal motoneurons of aged rats with behavioral sensorimotor deficits. Here we provide evidence, using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), of decreased levels of neurotrophin (nerve growth factor, NGF; brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF; neurotrophin-3, NT-3; and neurotrophin-4, NT-4) mRNAs in target muscles. Moreover, the degree of neurotrophin mRNA decrease in target muscles seems to co-vary with the extent of sensorimotor disturbances. In contrast, the peripheral nerve of aged rats showed a reciprocal regulation of neurotrophins, with increased levels of NGF, BDNF, and NT-4 mRNAs. Taken together, evidence suggest an aging-related attenuation of neurotrophin signaling between target tissues, on one hand, and DRG and motoneurons, on the other, and, furthermore, that target-derived neurotrophins regulate the expression levels of trk mRNAs in both DRG and motoneurons.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Focal dystonia: advances in brain imaging and understanding of fine motor control in musicians.

This article reviews the neuroanatomic and neurophysiologic foundations of music performance and learning. Music performance is regarded as complex voluntary sensorimotor behavior that becomes automated during extensive practice with auditory feedback. It involves all motor, somatosensory, and auditory areas of the brain. Because of the life-long plasticity of neuronal connections, practicing a musical instrument results first in a temporary and later in a stable increase in the amount of nerve tissue devoted to various component tasks. Motor and somatosensory brain regions corresponding to specific subtasks of music performance are larger in musicians starting younger than age 10 years than in the general population. In rare cases, overuse of movement patterns may induce a degradation of motor memory that results in a loss of voluntary control of movements, called musician's cramp. Specific therapeutic options for this condition are reviewed.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗
PubMed2003

Estimating invisible target speed from neuronal activity in monkey frontal eye field.

Working memory involves transient storage of information and the ability to manipulate that information for short-range planning and prediction. The computational aspect of working memory can be probed using dynamic sensorimotor behavior requiring complex stimulus-response mappings. Such a transformation occurs when extrapolating the future location of a moving target that is rendered temporarily invisible. Estimating the trajectory of an invisible moving target requires encoding and storing several target features, including the direction and speed of motion. We trained monkeys to make saccades to the estimated position of invisible targets moving at various speeds. The activity of neurons in the frontal eye field (FEF) was consistently modulated according to the speed of target motion. A reconstruction algorithm showed that estimates of target speed based on FEF activity were similar to behavioral speed estimates. FEF may therefore be involved in updating an internal representation of target trajectory for predictive saccades.

Action Potentials↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A cGMP-dependent protein kinase gene, foraging, modifies habituation-like response decrement of the giant fiber escape circuit in Drosophila.

The Drosophila giant fiber jump-and-flight escape response is a model for genetic analysis of both the physiology and the plasticity of a sensorimotor behavioral pathway. We previously established the electrically induced giant fiber response in intact tethered flies as a model for habituation, a form of nonassociative learning. Here, we show that the rate of stimulus-dependent response decrement of this neural pathway in a habituation protocol is correlated with PKG (cGMP-Dependent Protein Kinase) activity and foraging behavior. We assayed response decrement for natural and mutant rover and sitter alleles of the foraging (for) gene that encodes a Drosophila PKG. Rover larvae and adults, which have higher PKG activities, travel significantly farther while foraging than sitters with lower PKG activities. Response decrement was most rapid in genotypes previously shown to have low PKG activities and sitter-like foraging behavior. We also found differences in spontaneous recovery (the reversal of response decrement during a rest from stimulation) and a dishabituation-like phenomenon (the reversal of response decrement evoked by a novel stimulus). This electrophysiological study in an intact animal preparation provides one of the first direct demonstrations that PKG can affect plasticity in a simple learning paradigm. It increases our understanding of the complex interplay of factors that can modulate the sensitivity of the giant fiber escape response, and it defines a new adult-stage phenotype of the foraging locus. Finally, these results show that behaviorally relevant neural plasticity in an identified circuit can be influenced by a single-locus genetic polymorphism existing in a natural population of Drosophila.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Functional properties of primate putamen neurons during the categorization of tactile stimuli.

We used psychometric techniques and neurophysiological recordings to study the role of the putamen in somesthetic perception. Four monkeys were trained to categorize the speed of moving tactile stimuli. Animals performed a task in which one of two target switches had to be pressed with the right hand to indicate whether the speed of probe movement across the glabrous skin of the left, restrained hand was low or high. During the task we recorded the activity of neurons in the putamen contralateral (right) and ipsilateral (left) to the stimulated hand. We found different types of neuronal responses, all present in the right and left putamen. Some neurons responded during the stimulus period, others responded during the hand-arm movement used to indicate categorization, and others responded during both of these periods. The responses of many neurons did not vary either with the speed of the stimuli or in relation to the categorization process. In contrast, neurons of a particular type responded differentially: their activity reflected whether stimulus speed was low or high. These differential responses occurred during the stimulus and hand-arm motion periods. A number of the nondifferential and differential neurons were studied when the same stimuli used in the categorization task were delivered passively. Few neurons with nondifferential discharges, and none of the differential neurons, responded in this condition. In a visually cued control task we studied the possibility that the differential responses were associated with the intention to press or with the trajectory of the hand to one of the target switches. In this condition, a light turned on instructed the animal which target switch to press for a reward. Very few neurons in both hemispheres maintained the differential responses observed during the categorization task. Those neurons that discharged selectively for low or high speeds were analyzed quantitatively to produce a measure comparable with the psychometric function. The thresholds of the resulting neurometric curves for the neuronal populations were very similar to the psychometric thresholds. The activity of a large fraction of these neurons could be used to accurately predict whether the stimulus speed was low or high. The results indicate that the putamen, both contralateral and ipsilateral to the stimulated hand, contains neurons that discharge in response to the somesthetic stimuli during the categorization task. Those neurons that respond irrespective of the stimulus speed appear to be involved in the general sensorimotor behavior of the animal during the execution of the task. The results suggest that the putamen may play a role in bimanual tasks. The recording of neurons in the right and left putamen whose activities correlate with the speed categories suggests that this region of the basal ganglia, in addition to its role in motor functions, is also involved in the animal's decision process.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Local field potential oscillations in primate cerebellar cortex during voluntary movement.

Sustained oscillations of 13-18 Hz were observed in local field potentials (LFPs) in the cerebellar cortex of a behaving monkey. These oscillations, which appeared to be generated in the granular cell layer, were particularly prominent in the paramedian lobule. The oscillatory activity decreased during drowsiness or extreme arousal and occurred most often when the animal was immobile but alert. In a task requiring the animal to move the arm approximately 1 s after an auditory cue, the oscillations stopped some 150-200 ms after the cue, resumed 200-300 ms later, and stopped again 50-100 ms before movement onset. This modulation pattern was observed with consistency only when the animal responded reliably to the auditory cue. The results suggest that the cerebellum could be involved in some higher level of integration particularly during complex sensorimotor behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Anticonvulsant lamotrigine administered on reperfusion fails to improve experimental stroke outcomes.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Recent results suggest that selective inhibitors of presynaptic neuronal ion channels can diminish glutamate release during cerebral ischemia and modulate excitotoxic cell death. The aim of the present study was to evaluate lamotrigine (LTG), an antiepileptic that inhibits presynaptic sodium and voltage-sensitive calcium channels, as a potential stroke resuscitation agent in the rat. Three dosages of LTG were examined for effect on infarction volume and sensorimotor behavioral recovery after middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion. METHODS: Halothane-anesthetized male Wistar rats were subjected to 2 hours of MCA occlusion by the intraluminal occlusion technique. Physiological variables were controlled, and ipsilateral cortical perfusion was monitored by laser Doppler flowmetry throughout ischemia. At onset of reperfusion, rats received intravenous LTG 5, 10, or 20 mg/kg or PBS (n=9 to 11 per group) during 15 minutes. Behavioral assessment was completed at 3 and 7 days after stroke, and the brain was harvested for histology (triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining). RESULTS: Values are mean+/-SE. Cortical infarction volumes were unchanged in LTG-treated animals: 14+/-6% of contralateral cortex at 5 mg/kg LTG, 17+/-7% at 10 mg/kg, and 30+/-6% at 20 mg/kg, versus saline-treated cohorts (12+/-3%; P:=0.19; n=9). Caudate-putamen infarction injury was also unchanged (37+/-11% of contralateral caudate-putamen at 5 mg/kg LTG, 44+/-8% at 10 mg/kg, and 65+/-9% at 20 mg/kg versus saline (38+/-11%; P:=0.18). Total infarction was not different among groups (P:=0.15). Consistent with histology, behavioral outcomes were unimproved by treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Histological damage and behavioral recovery at 7 days after MCA occlusion was not altered by LTG treatment over the dosage range used in the present study.

Animals↗