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PubMed2000

Radiocesium discharges and subsequent environmental transport at the major US weapons production facilities.

Radiocesium is one of the more prevalent radionuclides in the environment as a result of weapons production-related atomic projects in the USA and the former Soviet Union. Radiocesium discharges during the 1950s account for a large fraction of the historical releases from US weapons production facilities. Releases of radiocesium to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems during the early years of nuclear weapons production provided the opportunity to conduct multidisciplinary studies on the transport mechanisms of this potentially hazardous radionuclide. The major US Department of Energy facilities (Oak Ridge Reservation in Tennessee, Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, and Savannah River Site near Aiken, South Carolina, USA) are located in regions of the country that have different geographical characteristics. The facility siting provided diverse backgrounds for the development of an understanding of environmental factors contributing to the fate and transport of radiocesium. In this paper, we summarize the significant environmental releases of radiocesium in the early years of weapons production and then discuss the historically significant transport mechanisms for 137Cs at the three facilities that were part of the US nuclear weapons complex.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Nuclear weapons, a continuing threat to health.

32,000 nuclear weapons, with a destructive force equivalent to several thousand megatons of conventional explosive, are still deployed. The risk of nuclear war by accident may have increased and new threats include war between newly declared nuclear-weapon-states and the construction by terrorist groups of crude but effective devices. Health workers have drawn attention in the past to the likely major health consequences of the use of nuclear weapons. An opportunity for their global elimination under a nuclear weapons convention arises with the current review conference in New York of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty--a crucial event for efforts to bring about a world free of nuclear weapons.

Humans↗
PubMed1991

Weapons possession by patients in a university emergency department.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Violence in the emergency department, a not uncommon but complex phenomenon, may become more serious when patients possess weapons. Searches are used frequently to reduce this danger, though guidelines for searches are not well delineated. We examined our practices in order to formalize our guidelines. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review of patients found to be carrying weapons. SETTING: General, university-based emergency department in the Northwest. PARTICIPANTS: Of 39,000 patients seen during the 20-month study period, 500 (1.3%) were searched. MEASURES AND MAIN RESULTS: Of all patients seen in the ED, 92% were medical patients (153, 0.4% of whom were searched) and 8% were psychiatric patients (347, 11.1% of whom were searched). Weapons were found on 89 patients (0.2% of all ED patients and 17.8% of all patients searched). Review showed that 24 (15.7%) medical and 60 (17.3%) psychiatric patients carried weapons. CONCLUSION: Although various factors contributed to a clear bias toward searching psychiatric patients, we believe that the rate of weapons possession did not support this bias.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Present state of control of chemical and biological weapons.

The use of chemical and biological weapons in war is prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972. Currently a new Chemical Weapons Convention is being negotiated in the UN Conference on Disarmament in Geneva. When this Convention enters into force the production, stockpiling and retention of chemical weapons will be prohibited. The development of a body of international law will enable the verifiable destruction of weapons such as these, and should lead to a more general programme of disarmament.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A fast track to zero nuclear weapons: the Middle Powers Initiative and the New Agenda Coalition.

The Middle Powers Initiative is a network of international citizen organizations working to encourage the nuclear weapon states and their influential allies to move rapidly to eliminate nuclear weapons via practical steps including a Nuclear Weapons Convention. The New Agenda Coalition is a group of middle-ranking nations whose governments have also called for the early elimination of nuclear weapons via similar steps. The work of MPI and NAC at the United Nations and elsewhere is described, and their impact on NATO nuclear weapons policy discussed.

Humans↗
PubMed1999

Mortality associated with use of weapons in armed conflicts, wartime atrocities, and civilian mass shootings: literature review.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the implications of variation in mortality associated with use of weapons in different contexts. DESIGN: Literature review. SETTINGS: Armed conflicts and civilian mass shootings, 1929-96. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Mortality from wounds. RESULTS: During the fighting of war the number of people wounded is at least twice the number killed and may be 13 times as high; this ratio of the number wounded to the number killed results from the impact of a weapon system on human beings in the particular context of war. When firearms are used against people who are immobilised, in a confined space, or unable to defend themselves the wounded to killed ratio has been lower than 1 or even 0. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality from firearms depends not only on the technology of the weapon or its ammunition but also on the context in which it is used. The increased mortality resulting from the use of firearms in situations other than war requires a complex interaction of factors explicable in terms of wound ballistics and the psychology of the user. Understanding these factors has implications for recognition of war crimes. In addition, the lethality of conventional weapons may be increased if combatants are disabled by the new non-lethal weapons beforehand; this possibility requires careful legal examination within the framework of the Geneva Conventions.

Civil Disorders↗
PubMed2001

New blast weapons.

Over the last decade a large number of weapon systems have appeared that use blast as their primary damage mechanism. This is a notable trend; until recently very few warheads relied on blast as their primary output. Most warheads in service use explosives to drive metal such as fragments and shaped charge jets to engage targets. New technologies are now being integrated into warheads that claim to have enhanced blast performance. Blast weapons could have been designed to fill a gap in capability; they are generally used for the attack of 'soft' targets including personnel, both in the open and within protective structures. With the increased number and range of these weapons, it is likely that UK forces will have to face them in future conflicts. This paper briefly describes fuel-air explosive blast weapons and reviews a range of enhanced blast weapons that have been developed recently. The paper concludes with a brief discussion on the reasons why enhanced blast technologies may be proliferating and how this could affect the Defence Medical Services.

Explosions↗
PubMed2006

Options for the destruction of chemical weapons and management of the associated risks.

The destruction of chemical weapons is a hazardous operation. The degree of hazard posed, however, is not uniform and is dependent on the specific chemical agent and the configuration of the weapon or bulk storage vessel in which it is contained. For example, a highly volatile nerve agent in an explosively configured munition, such as a rocket, poses a very different hazard from that of a bulk storage container of viscous mustard gas. Equally the handling of recovered, often highly corroded, World War (WW)I or WWII chemical munitions will pose a very different hazard from that associated with dealing with modern chemical weapons stored under the appropriate conditions. Over the years, a number of technologies have been developed for the destruction of chemical weapons. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. None of them provide a universal solution to the problem. When assessing options for the destruction of these weapons and the management of the associated risks, therefore, it is important to give due consideration and weight to these differences. To ensure that the destruction technology selected takes due account of them and that the resulting overall risk assessment accurately reflects the actual risks involved.

Chemical Warfare↗
PubMed2002

Preventing lethal violence in schools: the case for entry-based weapons screening.

Violence-related behavior in schools has declined in recent years, but the perception of risk remains high. Disturbingly high percentages of students and teachers report staying home out of fear, and many students bring weapons to school for protection. Current proposals for preventing school violence include punishing the violence-prone, expulsion for weapon carriers, and creating a culture of nonviolence through various behavioral methods like conflict resolution. None of these proposals address the issue of lethal violence and hence personal safety. The risk of lethal violence in schools (related mainly to firearms) could be substantially reduced by creating an effective barrier between firearms and people. This could be achieved by using entry-based weapons detection systems similar to those now used in airports and courts. Decreasing the risk and fear of violence by converting schools into weapons-free zones would also be expected to increase attendance and improve scholastic performance. Randomized, controlled studies should be undertaken to evaluate the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of entry-based weapons detection systems for achieving these outcomes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Access to war weapons and injury prevention activities among children in Croatia.

To investigate the exposure of children in Croatia to war weapons, we surveyed random samples of children (n=986) aged 11 to 16 years and of parents (1469) of children aged 7 to 16 years in April 1994 in four war-affected districts in Croatia. The children's survey indicated that 57% of the boys and 36% of the girls had access to weapons at home, at some other place, or at both. Eighteen percent of the boys and 5% of the girls reported playing with weapons. The parents' survey showed that 68% of the households possessed weapons, with 19% of the children having access to weapons at home. Influenced by preliminary findings of these surveys, the Croatian government modified its national campaign (one partially supported by international aid) to prevent war-related injuries among children. This study demonstrates the feasibility of scientific evaluation of humanitarian aid programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Are Saudi Arabian hospitals prepared for the threat of biological weapons?

The use of biological weapons has been recorded repeatedly in history. Until recently, biological terrorism had been little discussed or written about. However, events over the past 12 to 18 months have made it clear that likely perpetrators already envisage every possible scenario. Nations and dissident groups exist that have both the motivation and access to utilize biological weapons. In April 1994, a Russian biological weapons expert presented the conclusions of the Russian experts as to the agents most likely to be used: smallpox, anthrax, and plague. Health care workers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (physicians, nurses, and emergency medical technicians) need to be aware of the seriousness of the threat of biological weapons, and to have an approach for the early identification, triage, and management of biological weapons victims. Clues to the occurrence of a bioterrorism attack include the abrupt onset of a large number of cases of a similar disease or syndrome, the occurrence of diseases with unusual geographic or seasonal distribution, and epidemics of non-endemic diseases. Health care workers must maintain a high index of suspicion, involve the hospital epidemiologist or infectious diseases specialist, identify a clear administrative chain-of-command to minimize confusion, and rely on existing networks such as the hospital disaster-and-safety committee to ensure a multidisciplinary response. Maximum readiness can be achieved by periodic readiness drills.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2002

[Biological agents turning into weapons].

The use of biological agents as weapons is a well-known and established fact in the modern world. Biological warfare can be used both in terrorist events and in war and they pose a real threat and a formidable challenge to the defender. Biological weapons, in their various forms such as germs, viruses or toxins, can harm both living creatures and their surroundings. The relative simplicity of their production and use, compared to other non-conventional weapons, renders them to be a highly accessible system that can cause numerous casualties. Therefore, it is extremely important to study the threat and learn its characteristics, so as to be appropriately prepared in order to minimize potential damage. This review summarizes the characteristics of biological weapons (physical and biological), the means of use in bioterrorism and war, the advantages and disadvantages, comparisons to other non-conventional weapons and both tactical and strategical uses.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed1994

Drug use, drug trafficking, and weapon carrying among low-income, African-American, early adolescent boys.

OBJECTIVE: To examine relationships involving three extremely high-risk behaviors (drug use, drug trafficking, and weapon carrying) among low-income, urban, African-American early adolescent boys using both quantitative and qualitative methods. METHOD: The quantitative phase included 192 African-American boys from 9 through 15 years of age recruited from recreation centers located in low-income communities. Youth completed a survey addressing personal risk practices; intentions to engage in risk practices; risk taking among family, friends and community; and values toward risk practices. They also completed standardized assessments of sensation seeking, perceived peer pressure, and parent-child communication. All questionnaires were self-administered through MacIntosh computers programmed to present questions aurally and visually. The qualitative phase included 12 African-American youth from low-income, urban families. The youth participated in 60- to 90-minute interviews regarding drug activities and violence. RESULTS: Most boys (73%) were not involved in either drug activities or weapon carrying. Boys who were involved in drug activities or weapon carrying were often involved in other high-risk activities (cigarette and alcohol use, school failure and expulsion) and had low rates of adaptive communication with their parents. The boys reported high rates of drug involvement by their family, friends, and community. However, psychological and interpersonal factors were better predictors of individual risk activities than community or family variables. Personal values regarding economics predicted drug trafficking. More than 56% of the boys who reported past involvement in drug activities did not anticipate future involvement. CONCLUSIONS: Multilevel strategies are necessary to prevent involvement in drug activities and weapon carrying. Intervention programs should begin early and should promote communication between parents and children, adaptive behavior in school, and avoidance of cigarette and alcohol use. Community-level interventions are needed to alter the myth that drug involvement and weapon carrying are normative and to promote images that are less materialistic and more supportive of education and future-oriented activities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Weapon-carrying at Swiss schools? A gender-specific typology in context of victim and offender related violence.

After reviewing prevalence rates, this work tries to identify gender specific groups in which weapon-carrying occurs in the context of victim and offender related violent behaviours. k-Means cluster and logistic regression analyses were calculated, based on a cross-sectional survey of a national representative sample of 1549 15-year-olds as part of the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) international collaborative study. The victims and offenders of violence concern mainly female bullies and physically violent boys. In the male victim-offender group, 17% had already taken a weapon to school. Another male group emerged in which 95% had already taken a weapon to school. Members of this group revealed an elevated level of acting violently but a low level of being the victim. Among the minority girls who were offenders and victims of physical violence, everyone has already taken a weapon to school. Based on these results, homogenous risk groups can be targeted for violence prevention.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

The Taser weapon: a new emergency medicine problem.

The Taser is an electrical law enforcement and self-defense weapon that is being used with increasing frequency. The weapon is described and its effects and ballistic and electrical considerations are reviewed. Clinical aspects of Taser injury, including weapon-fired barb injury, barb removal methods, injury secondary to electrical current, ventricular fibrillation, possible interactions with implanted pacemakers, and injuries secondary to weapon-induced falls, are discussed. Taser injuries are a new and increasingly frequent emergency medicine problem.

Crime↗
PubMed2002

Biologic and chemical weapons of mass destruction.

Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) are capable of producing massive casualties and are typically grouped into nuclear, biologic, and chemical weapons. In the wake of the September 11th disasters, attention to terrorist groups and the potential for use of WMDs has increased. Biologic and chemical weapons are relatively accessible and inexpensive to develop, and are thought to be the most available to foreign states and subnational terrorist groups. This article reviews various biologic and chemical weapons, including emergency diagnosis and management of selected agents.

Bacterial Toxins↗
PubMed1998

Fighting and weapon-carrying among seventh-grade students in Massachusetts and Louisiana.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare attitudes toward violence and weapon-carrying among seventh-grade students in three dissimilar U.S. communities. A second focus was to determine students' understanding of their parents' violence-related guidance and behavior. METHODS: Five hundred sixty-seven seventh-grade students (48% male, 46% white, 35% African-American, 13% Latino) completed a self-administered questionnaire in May or October 1991. RESULTS: Thirty-four percent of the students had fought at least once, and 7% more than four times during the previous month. Also, within that period, 5% had skipped school owing to fear of violence. Students whose parents used nonviolent disciplinary techniques fought less frequently than those whose parents relied on hitting and more violent disciplinary methods (p < 0.001). Fighting was significantly more common among students who believe their parents want them to fight if insulted (p = 0.001). Students who reported that they try to stay out of fights usually succeeded (p = 0.001). Those students who more frequently participated in and observed fighting were more likely to carry a weapon (p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Fighting is a frequent occurrence in the lives of seventh-grade students. Students' understanding of their parents' attitudes and behavior correlate strongly with violent behavior. While many students feel that weapons confer safety, those students who actually carry weapons are much more likely to fight.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Activities of Pu and Am isotopes and isotopic ratios in a soil contaminated by weapons-grade plutonium.

An accident and fire at the former McGuire Air Force Base and Boeing Michigan Aeronautical Research Center (BOMARC) site in New Jersey resulted in dispersion of weapons-grade plutonium in particulate form to the local environment. Soil samples collected at the BOMARC site were measured for their activities and isotopic ratios of Pu and Am isotopes by radioanalytical techniques. The activities of the Pu and Am isotopes in the BOMARC soil were markedly higher than fallout levels, and they decreased nearly exponentially with increasing particle size of the soil. The measured (241)Am activity was compared to calculated values based on decay of (241)Pu. The activity ratios of (238)Pu/(239,240)Pu, (241)Pu/(239,240)Pu, and (241)Am/(239,240)Pu observed in the BOMARC soil were much lower than those attributed to nuclear reprocessing plants and Chernobyl fallout. From the activity ratios of (241)Pu/(239,240)Pu and (241)Am/(239,240)Pu, the origin of the Pu isotopes was identified as weapons-grade and the time since production of the material was estimated. Furthermore, the atomic ratio of (240)Pu/(239)Pu in the BOMARC soil was remarkably lower than the fallout value influenced by nuclear weapons testing and the Chernobyl accident. The atomic ratio of (240)Pu/(239)Pu was very close to the value of the weapons-grade Pu detected from the Thule accident in Greenland. This work demonstrates the utility of radioanalytical measurements and decay calculations for defining characteristics of the source term and discriminating multiple processes that contribute to a source. Such an approach would also be needed to respond to a terrorist event involving an improvised nuclear device or radiological dispersal device.

Americium↗