Why single out pregnant women? Comments on ACOG's recommendations for involving pregnant women in research.
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Disclosure↗
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Results for “Paternal Behavior”
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Patient access to experimental drugs and AIDS clinical trial designs: ethical issues.
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Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
Effects of experience on the parental responses of male Mongolian gerbils.
We examined responses of adult male Mongolian gerbils to nest site and young during the hours preceding and days following birth of a litter. We found that (a) male attendance at the nest site was markedly reduced for several hours following the birth of pups; (b) this lack of contact by males with nest and pups did not result from active exclusion of males from the nest by their mates; (c) males lacking previous experience of pups, but not those familiar with pups, avoided contact with pups on the day of their birth; and (4) 3-day-old gerbil pups were attractive even to males encountering young for the first time.
Animals↗
Parental factors as reported by patient groups.
A cluster analysis was performed on data collected from six different groups, one of controls and five of various patient groups. The analysis produced two clusters of items that differentiated groups at significant levels. The schizophrenic group, in particular, showed very high levels of significance when compared with all other groups on a factor that consisted of items that cover situations that involve consideration and respect for the rights of others. Schizophrenics reported their parents as significantly less concerned with these behaviors than all other groups. A second factor, which consisted of items related to sex, differentiated the depressive group from most others.
Adjustment Disorders↗
Observations on the birth and subsequent care of twin offspring by a lone pair of wild emperor tamarins (Saguinus imperator).
The birth of emperor tamarin (Saguinus imperator) twins was observed in the wild. The mother was a member of lone pair in a marked population of emperor tamarins in the Manu National Park, Peru. This report describes the birth and provides subsequent information on infant care and survival. Despite some difficulties, this lone pair of relatively young, primiparous emperor tamarins was able to successfully raise twin offspring to the age of at least 1 month.
Animals↗
Application of the Health Belief Model in a study on parents' intentions to utilize prenatal diagnosis of cleft lip and/or palate.
Parents of children with cleft lip and/or palate (42 women and 35 men) participated in a study on intentions to use prenatal diagnosis of cleft by ultrasound in subsequent pregnancies. Based on the Health Belief Model (HBM) [Rosenstock, 1974], parents' cognitions on 4 factors were measured by questionnaires: "susceptibility" and "severity perceptions," "benefits" and "barriers" evaluations. Most parents perceived the defect as severe. Over-estimation of recurrence risks was predominant even among parents who had received genetic counseling. Results showed that most parents intend to utilize prenatal diagnosis but do not intend to abort an affected fetus. Subjects' reported reasons represented 3 thematic categories: cognitive (the need to know), emotional, and behavioral. Parents' intentions to diagnose and to terminate were related to the factors predicted by the HBM model. Regression analyses indicated that 38% of the variance in intentions to diagnose and 56% of the variance in intentions to terminate could be explained by the studied variables. The best predictor of both intentions was the perceived benefits of the diagnosis. Implications of these findings for genetic counseling are discussed.
Abortion, Therapeutic↗
Developmental changes in responsiveness to parents and unfamiliar adults in a monogamous monkey (Callicebus moloch).
Titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch) are monogamous New World primates that are characteristically found in family-type groups consisting of a mated adult pair and one or two young. The factors maintaining the small size of these groups are not known. Based on observations of free-ranging and captive families, parental aggression toward older offspring seems unlikely to play a significant role. Maturing individuals themselves, however, could undergo behavioral changes that weaken ties to their natal group. These might include waning of affiliative relations with parents, or subtle forms of aversion. Independent of such changes, increasing interest in unfamiliar conspecifics could be a factor. We examined these possibilities in the present study by assessing changes in social behavior and social preferences from initial ambulatory independence (6 months) through reproductive maturity (24 months) in a combined cross-sectional/longitudinal study of 21 captive titi monkeys living with their parents. Responses to both parents and to an unfamiliar adult heterosexual pair, a single unfamiliar adult male, and a single unfamiliar adult female were observed when subjects were given a choice between parents and strangers presented simultaneously or as the only social incentive. Social stimuli were at opposite ends of a 16.8-m-long test corridor. Subjects could move freely about the corridor for 5 min with each configuration of social stimuli. They stayed closer to parents than to strangers at all ages. Responsiveness to strangers increased with age and suggested growing ambivalence, particularly toward the male stranger. As they approached 24 months of age, male subjects showed a dramatic increase in the frequency and intensity of agonistic behaviors toward male strangers, behaviors that were rarely directed toward female strangers or parents. Waning of attraction to parents may be less important in dispersal from the natal group than changing reactions to strangers.
Aggression↗
Variation in circulating and excreted estradiol associated with testicular activity in male marmosets.
Concentrations of estradiol (E2) are high in the urine of male marmosets, and links between E2 and paternal behavior have been proposed in black tufted-ear marmosets, Callithrix kuhlii. However, it is not clear whether urinary E2 in male marmosets: 1) represents production of E2 associated with testicular activity, 2) is associated with adrenal steroid production, or 3) merely reflects peripheral conversion of T to E2 prior to excretion. We tested the hypothesis that urinary E2 in male marmosets represents estrogen production-associated activity in the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad (HPG) axis. We treated adult male marmosets with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), and used saline-treated males as controls. We collected blood and urine samples from males before and after treatment, and assayed them for testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), and cortisol (CORT). Treatment with GnRH increased circulating T and E2, and prevented decreases in levels of urinary T and E2. Moreover, changes in plasma and urinary E2 after treatment were positively correlated with post-treatment changes in T. Thus, our data are consistent with both plasma and urinary E2 in male marmosets increasing as a result of testicular stimulation. However, treatment with GnRH did not affect plasma or urinary CORT concentrations of males, suggesting that the E2 excreted by males is not of adrenal origin. We also compared urinary T, E2, and CORT levels between intact and castrated male common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Urinary concentrations of T and E2, but not CORT, were significantly lower in castrated than in intact males, further suggesting that E2 in male marmosets varies with testicular activity.
Animals↗
Demographic correlates of paternity confidence and pregnancy outcomes among Albuquerque men.
We examine the demographic correlates of paternity confidence, or men's assessment of the likelihood that they are the genetic father of a particular child. Evolutionary theory predicts that men will provide less parental investment for putative genetic offspring who are unlikely to be their actual offspring, but confidence of paternity has not been as extensively examined as its importance would merit. Using self-reported data on paternity confidence in 3,360 pregnancies reported by men living in Albuquerque, New Mexico, we find that low paternity confidence is more common among unmarried couples and for unplanned pregnancies. We also find that men are more likely not to state paternity confidence (i.e., they refuse to answer the question) if a pregnancy is unplanned. We additionally examine the pregnancy outcomes associated with confidence of paternity. We find that low paternity confidence pregnancies are significantly more likely to be aborted, and pregnancies for which paternity confidence is unstated are more likely to be aborted or to miscarry. Both abortion and miscarriage are associated with unmarried couples, with unplanned pregnancies, and with couples who have fewer children together.
Abortion, Induced↗
Trade-offs in avian parental care: a review of theory and meta-analysis of brood size manipulations.
The selective forces shaping parental care have been studied for over 50 years. While theoretical and experimental work has yielded qualitative progress, the large body of empirical work testing predictions about parental investment based on life-history trade-offs has yet to be synthesized. We first provide an overview of the core life-history theory exploring how selection might shape parental care. We then conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on studies that experimentally manipulated brood size in birds, a widely used experimental approach to manipulate parental investment. We extracted 313 estimates from 62 studies representing 31 species of birds from 19 different families and tested key predictions on trade-offs in parental care derived from theory. Our analysis provides strong support for some predictions about life-history trade-offs in parental care, but weak or equivocal support for others. Specifically, we found that overall, avian parents respond to brood size manipulations as predicted by life-history theory: they increased care in response to brood enlargement, and decreased care in response to brood reductions. Furthermore, for the same relative manipulation size, responses to brood reductions were greater than responses to brood enlargements. This finding is consistent with predictions derived from life-history theory based on some types of non-linear utility curves. However, many predictions derived from theory are not well supported by our comparative analysis. Species' life-history traits such as clutch size (a measure of current reproduction), adult survival, and broods per year (two measures of future reproduction), explained little, if any, among-species variation in response to brood size manipulations. Several factors may explain this. We highlight that brood size manipulations may affect more than just perception of the value of current reproduction, such as altering parents' perception of predation risk. Importantly, these unintended consequences could lead to asymmetric responses like those we observed. Other common experimental approaches - such as hormone manipulations, altering a partner's effort, and food supplementation - often affect multiple traits or fitness components simultaneously, or may involve cues that poorly match the evolved mechanisms guiding parental behaviour. Our review of both theory and experimental approaches suggests that there are multiple opportunities for more precise experiments. We offer several recommendations for effective designs. One is improved understanding of the biology underlying the functions relating to costs and benefits, with careful consideration of not only how the manipulation will affect only one of those, but also the mechanisms that might alter how parents perceive the manipulation. We also emphasize general principles, such as assessing alternative hypotheses and devising multiple independent tests. Armed with these recommendations, we believe there are new opportunities to increase the strength of inference achieved from studies aimed at understanding the trade-offs affecting the evolution of parental care.
Animals↗
Effects of consanguinity, exposure to pregnant females, and stimulation from young on male gerbils' responses to pups.
In three experiments investigating variables affecting responses of male Mongolian gerbils to conspecific young, we compared the behavior directed towards pups of natural fathers, virgin foster fathers, and sexually experienced foster fathers (Experiment 1); males either previously exposed or not exposed to pregnant females (Experiment 2); and males provided or not provided with extra opportunities to huddle over pups (Experiment 3). We found no difference in responses to pups among natural fathers, virgin foster fathers, and foster fathers that had fathered litters. On the other hand, both a week of exposure to a pregnant female and opportunity to huddle over pups for an extra 15 min/day had significant effects on males' subsequent responses to conspecific young. We speculate on the reasons why a male's response to pups might be affected by his exposure to a pregnant female and stimuli from pups, but not by the probability that the pups were his own offspring.
Animals↗
Early stimulation, parental behavior, and the temperature of infant mice.
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Age Factors↗
In uniparental Phodopus sungorus, new mothers, and fathers present during the birth of their offspring, are the only hamsters that readily consume fresh placenta.
Placentophagia is common among parturient female mammals but non-parturient females generally refuse placenta. Biparental male dwarf hamsters (Phodopus campbelli) readily consume placenta. The present study quantified placentophagia and liver acceptance in the closely related Siberian hamster P. sungorus in which males do not participate in the birth and are not responsive to a displaced pup. Sexually naïve P. sungorus males and females refused both placenta and liver (all groups <10%). Reproductive females specifically consumed placenta on the day before (G17), and the day of, parturition (G18) (>80%). Males rejected both tissues on G17 and accepted placenta soon after the birth (G18) (80%) only if they were present during the birth. Palatability of the placenta was not responsible for the species difference as P. campbelli accepted P. sungorus placenta. Results are consistent with a neophobic reaction to both placenta (conspecific or heterospecific) and liver as P. sungorus also rejected P. campbelli placenta.
Animals↗
A sociobiological analysis of communal nesting and of male parental care in laboratory mice.
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Altruism↗
Gender differences in caring for infant Cebuella pygmaea: the role of infant age and relatedness.
This paper describes a three-part study of the parenting behaviors of 6 family groups of Cebuella pygmaea (pygmy marmosets). In the first part, the parenting patterns of undisturbed family groups housed under laboratory conditions were scored throughout the first 10 weeks following the birth of their second infant(s). To further investigate the role of infant age in determining parental behavior, caretaking patterns were studied after a brief separation of infants of varying ages from their families. Finally, an unrelated infant, age 1-5 weeks, was placed inside the home cage of each family, and caretaking of this novel infant was scored. The main findings that emerged from the study were: (1) sex differences in carrying the infants were dependent upon the age of the infant, i.e., adult females were the predominant carriers of infants less than or equal to 3 weeks of age and males (either adult or juvenile) the main carriers for infants greater than 3 weeks of age; (2) some caretaking behaviors, e.g., grooming and protective retrieval, were performed predominantly by the adult females throughout infancy; and (3) the relatedness of the infant, i.e., one's own vs. another's, appeared to primarily affect the behavior of adult females. In general, experimental manipulations confirmed results of the observational part of the study and thus may be useful paradigms for testing specific hypotheses about parental behaviors.
Age Factors↗
Father participation in child care: a critical review.
Nurses have provided much of the impetus for including fathers in perinatal activities during the last decade. Little is known, however, about what happens to father participation in child care after the family leaves the hospital. The major difficulty in interpreting father participation research is that no two studies use the same definition or measure of father participation. Findings are therefore, difficult to integrate into a meaningful conceptual framework which could guide practice. The purpose of this paper is to review past studies of father participation, extract the definitions of father participation implied by the measures used, discuss the methodological problems of measuring father participation, and develop guidelines for future measures that might advance this body of research.
Adult↗
Ecological factors underlying the adrenocortical response to capture stress in arctic-breeding shorebirds.
Birds breeding in the Arctic must carefully balance survival and reproduction because of the often extreme environmental conditions and the very brief breeding season. Acute elevation of plasma corticosterone is one mechanism that birds apparently use to alter the balance in favor of survival at the expense of reproduction when faced with stressors such as storms, predators, or low food availability. To examine this relationship, we applied a standardized stressor, capture and handling, to four species of shorebirds (Scolopacidae) during their breeding season in the Arctic and measured the increase in corticosterone between 3 min and 30 min after capture (hereafter called the stress response). We tested two hypotheses in an effort to explain the individual variation observed in the stress response. The first hypothesis states that individuals most responsible for parental care have a lower stress response than individuals less responsible for parental care. In species with uniparental care (Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos, Red Phalarope Phalaropus fulicaria), the caregivers had a lower stress response than the opposite sex, although in the latter species the difference was not significant (P = 0.016 and P = 0.102, respectively). In a species with equal biparental care (Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla), the stress response did not differ between the sexes (P = 0.99, Barrow population). In a species with unequal biparental care (Western Sandpiper C. mauri), the more parental sex (males) had a much lower stress response than the less parental sex (P = 0.002). The second hypothesis states that individuals breeding in the high Arctic have a lower stress response than individuals breeding in the low Arctic. The stress response in a low-Arctic population of Semipalmated Sandpipers (Nome) was higher than that in a high-Arctic population (Barrow, P < 0.05). Individuals at an additional high-Arctic location (Prudhoe Bay) exhibited stress responses most similar to those of the Barrow population (P > 0.05). Taken together, these results provide evidence of a mechanism that birds may use to breed in environments with a brief breeding season and under conditions that might be perceived as stressful, if not for their reduced sensitivity to potential stressors.
Adrenal Cortex↗
Hormonal correlates of breeding status, nest construction, and parental care in multiple-brooded northern mockingbirds, Mimus polyglottos.
Blood samples were taken from free-living male and female mockingbirds to determine correlations between plasma steroids and breeding behavior. Plasma levels of testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), progesterone (P), and corticosterone (B) were assessed during pre-breeding courtship, while males built nests, while females incubated, while parents fed young, and while males built new nests as pairs continued to care for dependent fledglings. Samples were also taken from unmated males holding spring territories. In males, T and P fluctuated with breeding phase, and in all groups, male T levels exceeded basal values measured in autumn. But, when mated males built nests in the absence of young, T levels were higher than in all other conditions, though only for early broods. In females too, T and P levels changed with breeding phase; T levels rose during courtship and while males built first nests and were intermediate during nest construction for later broods. Male and female P levels rose during courtship and when males built nests with young present. While feeding young in the nest, males showed significantly higher corticosterone levels than females, though in females, both P and B levels increased during incubation for replacement broods. These findings strengthen an earlier finding that T may activate male nest construction, and they suggest that breeding behavior may be related to T in females as well. Progesterone data raise the possibility that P too, may be linked to breeding behavior in male and female mockingbirds. Sex differences in corticosterone levels during the nestling period may reveal subtle costs associated with male mockingbirds' highly aggressive defense against predators.
Animals↗