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PubMed1999

Paternal kin discrimination in wild baboons.

Mammals commonly avoid mating with maternal kin, probably as a result of selection for inbreeding avoidance. Mating with paternal kin should be selected against for the same reason. However, identifying paternal kin may be more difficult than identifying maternal kin in species where the mother mates with more than one male. Selection should nonetheless favour a mechanism of paternal kin recognition that allows the same level of discrimination among paternal as among maternal kin, but the hypothesis that paternal kin avoid each other as mates is largely untested in large mammals such as primates. Here I report that among wild baboons, Papio cynocephalus, paternal siblings exhibited lower levels of affiliative and sexual behaviour during sexual consortships than non-kin, although paternal siblings were not significantly less likely to consort than non-kin. I also examined age proximity as a possible social cue of paternal relatedness, because age cohorts are likely to be paternal sibships. Pairs born within two years of each other were less likely to engage in sexual consortships than pairs born at greater intervals, and were less affiliative and sexual when they did consort. Age proximity may thus be an important social cue for paternal relatedness, and phenotype matching based on shared paternal traits may play a role as well.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2004

An indirect test of the new mutation hypothesis associating advanced paternal age with the etiology of schizophrenia.

Two studies by Malaspina et al. [2001: Arch Gen Psychiatr 58:361-367]; [2002: Am J Med Genet 114:299-303] have put forward the hypothesis that advanced paternal age with concomitant mutations in the male germ line is associated with sporadic schizophrenia in offspring. The hypothesis was supported by an observation of a monotonic increase in the risk for schizophrenia with increased paternal age, and a second observation in a separate sample of greater paternal mean age at birth among cases of apparent sporadic schizophrenia. The present study did not test the association of the risk of schizophrenia with advanced paternal age, but repeated the test of paternal age at birth among sporadic versus familial schizophrenic probands. We also examined the risk of schizophrenia, psychosis, and broad psychosis among paternal 1st and 2nd degree relatives of schizophrenic probands as a function of paternal age at birth of the proband, reasoning that if probands born to older fathers are more likely to be sporadic cases, the risk of schizophrenia (or psychosis) should be lower on the paternal side of the family. Results indicate a lack of support for the previous finding that sporadic probands tend to have older fathers at birth than familial probands. Results also failed to support the related hypothesis that increased paternal age is associated with the lower risk of schizophrenia (or psychosis) in the relatives of schizophrenic probands. The failure to support the paternal age hypothesis may be a function of heterogeneous samples, but calls for further research in the context of family studies.

Family Health↗

PubMed2001

Testosterone, paternal behavior, and aggression in the monogamous California mouse (Peromyscus californicus).

Testosterone (T) mediates a trade-off, or negative correlation, between paternal behavior and aggression in several seasonally breeding avian species. However, the presence or absence of a T-mediated trade-off in mammals has received less attention. We examined the relationship between paternal behavior and territorial aggression in the biparental California mouse, Peromyscus californicus. In contrast to seasonally breeding birds, T maintains paternal behavior in this year-round territorial species. Castration reduced paternal behavior, whereas T replacement maintained high levels of paternal behavior. We hypothesize that T is aromatized in the brain to estradiol, which in turn stimulates paternal behavior. In contrast to paternal behavior, aggressive behavior was not reduced by castration. Interestingly, only sham males showed an increase in aggression across three aggression tests, while no change was detected in castrated or T-replacement males. Overall, trade-offs between aggression and paternal behavior do not appear to occur in this species. Measures of paternal behavior and aggression in a correlational experiment were actually positively correlated. Our data suggest that it may be worth reexamining the role that T plays in regulating mammalian paternal behavior.

Aggression↗

PubMed2005

Paternal age and intelligence: implications for age-related genomic changes in male germ cells.

BACKGROUND: A robust association between advancing paternal age and schizophrenia risk is reported, and genetic changes in the germ cells of older men are presumed to underlie the effect. If that is so, then the pathway may include effects on cognition, as those with premorbid schizophrenia are reported to have lower intelligence. There are also substantial genetic influences on intelligence, so de novo genetic events in male germ cells, which accompany advancing paternal age, may plausibly influence offspring intelligence. OBJECTIVE: An association of paternal age with IQ in healthy adolescents may illuminate the mechanisms that link it to schizophrenia. METHOD: We examined the association of paternal age and IQ scores using the Israeli Army Board data on 44 175 individuals from a richly described birth cohort, along with maternal age and other potential modifiers. RESULTS: A significant inverted U-shaped relationship was observed between paternal age and IQ scores, which was independent from a similar association of IQ scores with maternal age. These relationships were not significantly attenuated by controlling for multiple possible confounding factors, including the other parent's age, parental education, social class, sex and birth order, birth weight and birth complications. Overall, parental age accounted for approximately 2% of the total variance in IQ scores, with later paternal age lowering non-verbal IQ scores more than verbal IQ scores. CONCLUSION: We found independent effects of maternal and paternal age on offspring IQ scores. The paternal age effect may be explained by de novo mutations or abnormal methylation of paternally imprinted genes, whereas maternal age may affect fetal neurodevelopment through age-related alterations in the in-utero environment. The influence of late paternal age to modify non-verbal IQ may be related to the pathways that increase the risk for schizophrenia in the offspring of older fathers.

Cohort Studies↗

PubMed2002

A self-consistent approach to paternity and parental effort.

We review the relationship between optimal parental effort and paternity, and emphasize the need for a self-consistent approach. A fundamental consistency condition is what we refer to as the conservation of paternity. Every offspring has exactly one father. If a male has a paternity of less than unity, then another male or other males must have gained the lost paternity. Our approach also emphasizes that paternity emerges as the result of interactions between males and females. From this viewpoint, if paternity changes it is because some aspect of the interaction changes, and the correlation between effort and paternity depends on the aspect that has changed. This has implications for comparative analyses of paternity. The conclusions that are drawn about the correlation between effort and paternity within a population depend on, for example, the types of male in the population and how their abilities are correlated. It is easy to construct models that predict negative correlations between effort and paternity.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2003

Relationship of paternal factors to birth weight.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between paternal characteristics and birth weight. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 241 gravidas with uncomplicated, singleton, term pregnancies were studied. Maternal demographic and pregnancy-specific characteristics were used to calculate the expected birth weight for each fetus using a previously validated birth weight prediction equation. The additional independent predictive value of 4 paternal variables was assessed using multiple regression. RESULTS: Before adjustment for other variables, paternal height and weight significantly correlated with birth weight, but paternal age and body mass index did not. After controlling for maternal and pregnancy-specific factors that are known to influence fetal weight, only paternal height was significant as a predictive variable. The proportion of variance in birth weight that could be independently explained by paternal height was 2%. A 10-g gain in fetal weight was associated with each centimeter of increase in paternal height (P < .02). Using the resulting combination equation that included paternal height as a variable, 31% of the variance in term birth weight could be explained, and birth weights could be accurately predicted to within +/- 8.3% (+/- 288 g). Fathers with heights 2 SD above and below the mean had the term birth weight of their offspring increased and diminished by 125 g, respectively. CONCLUSION: Paternal height explains an independent portion of the variance in term birth weight among normal newborns of up to 250 g that cannot be explained by other maternal or pregnancy-specific factors. Paternal age, weight and body mass index do not independently influence birth weight.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Genetic conflicts, multiple paternity and the evolution of genomic imprinting.

We present nine diallelic models of genetic conflict in which one allele is imprintable and the other is not to examine how genomic imprinting may have evolved. Imprinting is presumed to be either maternal (i.e., the maternally derived gene is inactivated) or paternal. Females are assumed to be either completely monogamous or always bigamous, so that we may see any effect of multiple paternity. In contrast to previous verbal and quantitative genetic models, we find that genetic conflicts need not lead to paternal imprinting of growth inhibitors and maternal imprinting of growth enhancers. Indeed, in some of our models--those with strict monogamy--the dynamics of maternal and paternal imprinting are identical. Multiple paternity is not necessary for the evolution of imprinting, and in our models of maternal imprinting, multiple paternity has no effect at all. Nevertheless, multiple paternity favors the evolution of paternal imprinting of growth inhibitors and hinders that of growth enhancers. Hence, any degree of multiple paternity means that growth inhibitors are more likely to be paternally imprinted, and growth enhancers maternally so. In all of our models, stable polymorphism of imprinting status is possible and mean fitness can decrease over time. Neither of these behaviors have been predicted by previous models.

Alleles↗

PubMed2026

Associations Between Paternal Pre-Conceptional Body Mass Index and Lifestyle Factors and Offspring Weight Development.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that pre-conceptional paternal factors, including BMI and diet, may influence offspring development. OBJECTIVES: We examined the associations between paternal BMI, dietary protein intake, glycemic index (GI), smoking and alcohol consumption and offspring development during the first 5 years of life. METHODS: This secondary analysis of an RCT included 162 father-child pairs from pregnancies among women with pre-pregnancy overweight or obesity. Paternal characteristics were reported at gestational week 15, reflecting the preceding 3 months. Offspring anthropometry was measured at birth, 6 and 18 months, 3 and 5 years. Associations were examined using linear mixed models and linear regression models. RESULTS: No consistent associations were found between paternal characteristics and offspring outcomes from birth to 3 years. At age 5, higher paternal BMI was associated with higher offspring BMI z-score (β = 0.07 (CI: 0.03; 0.10)), fat mass index (β = 0.07 kg/m2 (CI: 0.02; 0.12)) and fat-free mass index (β = 0.05 kg/m2 (CI: 0.01; 0.08)). Lower paternal protein intake was associated with higher offspring BMI z-score (β = 0.54 (CI: 0.07; 1.01)) and fat-free mass index (β = 0.60 kg/m2 (CI: 0.13; 1.07)), while moderately higher protein intake was associated with higher waist-to-height ratio (β = 0.03 (CI: 3.00 × 10-3; 0.05)). Higher paternal GI was associated with lower offspring BMI z-score (β = -0.04 (CI: -0.08; -2.14-10-3)) at age 5. Smoking and alcohol were not associated with offspring outcomes. CONCLUSION: Paternal BMI was associated with offspring outcomes at age 5 years, while findings for paternal dietary factors were less consistent.

Humans↗

PubMed1997

Paternity after bilateral cryptorchidism. A controlled study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare paternity among men with former bilateral cryptorchidism (referred to as the bilateral group) with a group of men with former unilateral cryptorchidism (referred to as the unilateral group) and a control group. DESIGN: Epidemiologic survey of study cohort. SETTING: Large urban pediatric hospital. SUBJECTS: Men with former bilateral and unilateral cryptorchidism who underwent orchiopexy between 1955 and 1971 at the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa, and a group of control men have been surveyed by questionnaire concerning paternity and factors related to paternity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Paternity. RESULTS: Among the married men who had bilateral cryptorchidism, 50% had fathered children, compared with 76% in the control group and 74% in the unilateral group. Data were similar when the men who were cohabitating were included with the married men. When men who had married and had attempted paternity were evaluated, 62% of the men in the bilateral group had been able to father children compared with 94% of the control group and 89% of the men in the unilateral group. No relationship was noted between the age of orchiopexy or lifestyle factors and paternity. Paternity among all groups was related to female-related infertility factors and to the presence of varicoceles. CONCLUSIONS: Paternity was compromised after bilateral cryptorchidism when compared with men with former unilateral cryptorchidism and a control group. Among the bilateral group, infertility is about 3.5 times as frequent than the unilateral group and more than 6 times as frequent among the control group. No correlation was found between age of orchiopexy and paternity for either group.

Cohort Studies↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Interaction of photoperiod and testes development is associated with paternal care in Microtus pennsylvanicus (meadow voles).

During the summer breeding season, free-living meadow voles do not engage in paternal care. However, in fall when female territoriality declines, social nesting and breeding activity may overlap and adult males nest with females and young. In the laboratory, meadow voles housed under short day (SD) lengths exhibit more and better quality paternal care than those housed under long day (LD) lengths. This observation is commensurate with the hypothesis that SD paternal care may increase fitness by decreasing pup mortality during colder months. However, SD males also demonstrate variability in paternal care. We hypothesize that this variability may be due to male fertility status; SD infertile males, incapable of siring offspring, should be less likely to care for pups than fertile males, for whom paternal care may confer fitness benefits. The goal of this experiment was to determine whether paternal behavior differed between fertile LD males, fertile SD males (i.e. males that were gonadally photoperiod-unresponsive to SD lengths), and infertile SD males (i.e. males that were gonadally photoperiod-responsive to SD lengths), as indexed by paired testes weights and behavioral evaluation. Fertile SD males exhibited proportionally more paternal behavior than infertile SD males or fertile LD males, which did not differ from each other. Fertile SD males also exhibited paternal behavior faster, spent more time in contact with pups, and engaged in longer and more frequent bouts of pup-directed grooming and huddling than either infertile SD males or fertile LD males. Collectively, these data suggest that photoperiod and fertility status may interact to exert both inhibitory and permissive control over the expression of paternal behavior in adult meadow voles.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Elucidating the mechanisms of paternal non-disjunction of chromosome 21 in humans.

Paternal non-disjunction of chromosome 21 accounts for 5-10% of Down syndrome cases, therefore, relative to the maternally derived cases, little is known about paternally derived trisomy 21. We present the first analysis of recombination and non-disjunction for a large paternally derived population of free trisomy 21 conceptuses ( n = 67). Unlike maternal cases where the ratio of meiosis I (MI) to meiosis II (MII) errors is 3:1, a near 1:1 ratio exists among paternal cases, with a slight excess of MII errors. We found no paternal age effect for the overall population nor when classifying cases according to stage of non-disjunction error. Among 22 MI cases, only five had an observable recombinant event. This differs significantly from the 11 expected events ( P < 0.02, Fisher's exact), suggesting reduced recombination along the non-disjoined chromosomes 21 involved in paternal MI non-disjunction. No difference in recombination was detected among 27 paternal MII cases as compared with controls. However, cases exhibited a slight increase in the frequency of proximal and medial exchange when compared with controls (0.37 versus 0.28, respectively). Lastly, this study confirmed previous reports of excess male probands among paternally derived trisomy 21 cases. However, we report evidence suggesting an MII stage-specific sex ratio disturbance where 2.5 male probands were found for each female proband. Classification of MII cases based on the position of the exchange event suggested that the proband sex ratio disturbance was restricted to non-telomeric exchange cases. Based on these findings, we propose new models to explain the association between paternally derived trisomy 21 and excessive male probands.

Chromosomes, Human, Pair 21↗

PubMed2002

How well do mating frequency and duration predict paternity success in the polygynandrous water strider Aquarius remigis?

The relationship between mating success and paternity success is a key component of sexual selection but has seldom been estimated for species in which both sexes mate with many partners (polygynandry). We used a modification of Parker's sterile male technique to measure this relationship for the water strider Aquarius remigis in 47 laboratory populations simulating natural conditions of polygynandry. We also tested the hypothesis that prolonged copulation, a characteristic of this species, enhances paternity success. Mating behavior and paternity success were assayed for four days while males and females freely interacted. Paternity success was also assayed for an additional 7 days when females were isolated from males. Mating success significantly predicted paternity success and accounted for < or = 36% of the variance. Copulation duration was negatively related to both mating success and paternity success and did not explain any of the residual variance in paternity success. Thus, we found no evidence that prolonged copulation functions as a paternity assurance strategy in this species. Comparisons of sterile and fertile males suggested that paternity success is directly influenced by the quantity of sperm transferred. Our results support previous studies that have used mating success to estimate sexual selection, but also highlight the potential importance of sperm competition and other postinsemination processes.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

In utero paternity testing following alleged sexual assault. A comparison of DNA-based methods.

OBJECTIVE: To compare DNA typing by both variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods to determine the utility of each for prenatal paternity testing following sexual assault. To consider ethical issues of limiting prenatal paternity studies. DESIGN: Criterion standard. SETTING: Prenatal diagnostic clinic after determination of pregnancy following an alleged sexual assault. SUBJECTS: Ten prenatal paternity cases accepted during a 5-year period. INTERVENTION: DNA-based paternity testing. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Inclusion or exclusion of paternity by consensual partner. RESULTS: In all cases DNA typing using the PCR-based method provided the same conclusion as that from VNTR-based data. High probabilities of paternity were reported with both methods. CONCLUSIONS: DNA typing with PCR using short tandem repeat loci provides a reliable method for quickly determining paternity in prenatal cases. The ethics of providing paternity testing in the context of sexual assault is discussed. The issue of providing prenatal paternity testing in consensual relationships is considered.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Paternal alcohol exposure and hyperactivity in rat offspring: effects of amphetamine.

Locomotor activity of rat offspring sired by fathers treated with 0, 2 or 3 g/kg of alcohol twice daily was assessed at 21, 42 and 90 days of age. Fathers treated with the two lower doses were pair-fed to those treated with the highest dose. Offspring of nontreated ad-lib fed fathers were also evaluated to determine the possible role of paternal stress associated with intubation and pair-feeding. The behavioral response to amphetamine was also examined in 90-day-old male offspring. Paternal alcohol treatment resulted in increased activity at each age for 3 g/kg offspring compared to pair-fed controls. Ad-lib offspring did not differ from 0 g/kg controls at 21 and 42 days of age. The significant effect of paternal alcohol treatment on offspring activity at 90 days, including a significant linear paternal effect, occurred when all amphetamine-treated groups were pooled. The alcohol x amphetamine interaction was not significant, but a significant linear paternal alcohol x linear amphetamine interaction indicated that the paternal alcohol effect on activity was differentially responsive to amphetamine. Subsequent analysis of this interaction indicated a significant linear paternal alcohol trend only at the high dose of amphetamine. These results corroborate a previous report of increased activity on the part of offspring sired by fathers treated with alcohol. The presence of a differential effect of amphetamine suggests that the paternal effect on activity may be mediated by catecholaminergic activity. The absence of significant differences between ad lib and 0 g/kg pair-fed controls indicates that paternal stress/undernutrition does not significantly affect offspring activity.

Aging↗

PubMed1998

Paternal height and weight as determinants of birth weight in a Chinese population.

To evaluate the relationship between paternal weight and height and birth weight, 355 middle class patients with uncomplicated singleton pregnancies who booked within the first trimester were recruited from a homogenous obstetric population from a teaching hospital unit. Maternal height and prepregnant maternal weight were recorded at the booking visit. Paternal height and weight were recorded when the fathers entered the labor ward or visited the postnatal ward at or shortly after the time of delivery. These data were then correlated with the birth weight of the babies. There was a significant correlation between paternal height and weight and the corresponding maternal parameters (correlation coefficients 0.21, p<0.001 and 0.21, p < 0 > 0.01). When the crude birth weight was adjusted for the gestation at delivery, and then controlled for maternal height and weight with the use of a regression model, analysis of variance tests showed that paternal height was significantly correlated to the adjusted birth weight (p<0.01), while paternal weight only showed a marginal correlation (p = 0.05). There was a significant correlation between maternal and paternal height and weight, indicating that couples tend to be of similar sizes. When controlling for maternal size, paternal height was significantly correlated to birth weight, while paternal weight showed only marginal significance. The data suggested that paternal genetic influence could be a significant determinant of in utero fetal growth and thus birth weight.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

The prognostic value of anti-paternal antibodies and leukocyte immunizations on the proportion of live births in couples with consecutive recurrent miscarriages.

Anti-paternal antibodies directed towards paternal leukocytes have been used to predict the prognosis for the subsequent pregnancy in women with consecutive recurrent miscarriages (CRM) and also to determine if the patient has become immune after paternal leukocyte immunization. The predictive value is controversial, as these antibodies are not essential for pregnancy to develop, and only occur in a minority of parous women. This study tried to determine the predictive value of these antibodies when assessed separately for women with five or more abortions and compared to women with three or four abortions. The patients were assessed separately so that the higher live birth rate in the latter group would not obscure meaningful results in the former group with a poor prognosis. Antibody production, whether spontaneous, or induced by immunization, raised the live birth rate in primary and tertiary aborters with three, four, five or more abortions. Anti-paternal antibodies increased the proportion of live births from 18.5 to 53. 7% (P </= 0.01) and from 44.4 to 67.5% (P </= 0.001) in primary aborters with >/= 5 CRM and 3-4 CRM respectively. Both immunization with paternal leukocytes per se and the ability to express anti-paternal antibodies were associated with an increased proportion of live births in the next pregnancy. Multivariate analysis showed that that the odds ratio for a live birth was approximately four times greater in women who were immunized and produced anti-paternal antibodies than in control patients. The lack of anti-paternal antibodies at initial testing could serve as a marker for the benefit of immunization with paternal leukocytes; the subsequent presence as a prognostic marker for the subsequent pregnancy.

Abortion, Habitual↗

PubMed1997

Paternal cigarette smoking and the risk of childhood cancer among offspring of nonsmoking mothers.

BACKGROUND: Cigarette smoking has been shown to increase oxidative DNA damage in human sperm cells. Assessment of the role of cigarette smoking in the etiology of childhood cancer has focused primarily on the effect of maternal smoking. Similar studies in relation to paternal smoking, however, have been inconclusive. Few studies have evaluated the effect of paternal smoking in the preconception period, and most of these could not disentangle the effects of paternal from maternal smoking. PURPOSE: We investigated the relationship of paternal smoking, particularly in the preconception period, with childhood cancer among offspring of the nonsmoking mothers. METHODS: We conducted a population-based, case-control study in Shanghai, People's Republic of China, where the prevalence of smoking is high among men but extremely low among women. The study included 642 childhood cancer case patients (<15 years of age) and their individually matched control subjects. Information concerning parental smoking, alcohol drinking, and other exposures of the index child was obtained by direct interview of both parents of the study subjects. Odds ratios (ORs), derived from conditional logistic regression models, were used to measure the association between paternal smoking and risk of childhood cancers. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Paternal preconception smoking was related to a significantly elevated risk of childhood cancers, particularly acute leukemia and lymphoma. The risks rose with increasing pack-years of paternal preconception smoking for acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) (P for trend = .01), lymphoma (P for trend = .07), and total cancer (P for trend = .006). Compared with children whose fathers had never smoked cigarettes, children whose fathers smoked more than five pack-years prior to their conception had adjusted ORs of 3.8 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.3-12.3) for ALL, 4.5 (95% CI = 1.2-16.8) for lymphoma, 2.7 (95% CI = 0.8-9.9) for brain tumors, and 1.7 (95% CI = 1.2-2.5) for all cancers combined. Statistically significant increased risks of cancer were restricted to children under the age of 5 years at diagnosis or those whose fathers had smoked during all of the 5 years prior to conception. IMPLICATIONS: Further studies are needed to confirm the association of paternal smoking with increased risk of cancer in offspring, to clarify the pattern of risks in relation to the timing of cigarette smoking, and to elucidate the biologic mechanism involved in predisposing the offspring to cancer. For example, it may be that paternal smoking induces prezygotic genetic damage that, in turn, acts as the predisposing factor.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Demographic correlates of paternity confidence and pregnancy outcomes among Albuquerque men.

We examine the demographic correlates of paternity confidence, or men's assessment of the likelihood that they are the genetic father of a particular child. Evolutionary theory predicts that men will provide less parental investment for putative genetic offspring who are unlikely to be their actual offspring, but confidence of paternity has not been as extensively examined as its importance would merit. Using self-reported data on paternity confidence in 3,360 pregnancies reported by men living in Albuquerque, New Mexico, we find that low paternity confidence is more common among unmarried couples and for unplanned pregnancies. We also find that men are more likely not to state paternity confidence (i.e., they refuse to answer the question) if a pregnancy is unplanned. We additionally examine the pregnancy outcomes associated with confidence of paternity. We find that low paternity confidence pregnancies are significantly more likely to be aborted, and pregnancies for which paternity confidence is unstated are more likely to be aborted or to miscarry. Both abortion and miscarriage are associated with unmarried couples, with unplanned pregnancies, and with couples who have fewer children together.

Abortion, Induced↗