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PubMed2003

Growth in body size affects rotational performance in women's gymnastics.

National and state representative female gymnasts (n = 37), aged initially between 10 and 12 years, completed a mixed longitudinal study over 3.3 years, to investigate the effect of body size on gymnastic performance. Subjects were tested at four-monthly intervals on a battery of measures including structural growth, strength and gymnastic performance. The group were divided into 'high growers' and 'low growers' based on height (> 18 cm or < 14 cm/37 months, respectively) and body mass (> 15 kg or < 12 kg/37 months, respectively) for comparative purposes. Development of gymnastic performance was assessed through generic skills (front and back rotations, a twisting jump and a V-sit action) and a vertical jump for maximum height. The results show that the smaller gymnast, with a high strength to mass ratio, has greater potential for performing skills involving whole-body rotations. Larger gymnasts, while able to produce more power and greater angular momentum, could not match the performance of the smaller ones. The magnitude of growth experienced by the gymnast over this period has a varying effect on performance. While some activities were greatly influenced by rapid increases in whole-body moment of inertia (e.g. back rotation), performance on others like the front rotation and vertical jump, appeared partly immune to the physical and mechanical changes associated with growth.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1998

Aspects of leukocyte function and the complement system following aerobic exercise in young female gymnasts.

Recent studies have reported reduced immunity in trained athletes. Scant information exists on changes in the immune function among trained children. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of aerobic exercise on the phagocytic process of neutrophils and the complement system in young athletes. Subjects included prepubertal elite female gymnasts (n = 7) and untrained girls (n = 6) aged 10-12 years. Venous blood was withdrawn before, immediately post and 24 h following a 20-min run at a heart rate of 170-180 beats.min-1. Neutrophil random migration, chemotactic activity, bactericidal function and PMA/FMLP-stimulated superoxide anion release as well as various complement components were assessed. Net chemotaxis was found reduced (P < 0.05) 24 h following exercise (58 +/- 11 vs. 36 +/- 11 cells/field in gymnasts and 47 +/- 7 vs. 42 +/- 8 cells/field in untrained girls pre- and 24 h post-exercise, respectively). The basal values, as well as post-exercise values of bactericidal activity were lower (P < 0.05) in gymnasts as compared with the control group (0.8 +/- 0.3, 0.8 +/- 0.2 and 0.8 +/- 0.1 log decrease of colonies in gymnasts at pre-, immediately post-, and 24 h post-exercise, respectively and 1.1 +/- 0.1, 1.1 +/- 0.1 and 1.0 +/- 0.2 log decrease of colonies in controls, respectively). No significant effect on the bactericidal activity was observed in either group following exercise. The addition of homologous sera did not correct the bactericidal activity. PMA-stimulated superoxide anion release decreased (P < 0.05) among gymnasts immediately following exercise (5.7 +/- 0.4 vs. 4.4 +/- 1.0 mmol O2/10(6) PMN.min) and remained low 24 h later. The same trend was observed in FMLP-stimulated neutrophils but the data were not significant. Significantly decreased levels (P < 0.05) of the early complement components (C1Q, C1R) were also found following exercise (1.34 +/- 0.64 vs. 1.27 +/- 0.28 and 1.09 +/- 0.07 vs. 1.02 +/- 0.06 pre- and post-exercise in gymnasts and untrained, respectively). Furthermore, consistently lower C2 and C3 were observed in gymnasts compared with controls. Neutrophil dysfunction as well as impairment of the complement system seem to occur following exercise.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2005

Relation between foot arch index and ankle strength in elite gymnasts: a preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: Gymnasts usually start intensive training from early childhood. The impact of such strenuous training on the musculoskeletal system is not clear. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the relation between muscle strength of the ankle joint and foot structure in gymnasts. METHODS: The study population comprised 20 high level male gymnasts and 17 non-athletic healthy male controls. Arch indices were measured using a podoscope. Ankle plantar/dorsiflexion and eversion/inversion strengths were measured using a Biodex 3 dynamometer within the protocol of concentric/concentric five repetitions at 30 degrees /s velocity. RESULTS: The mean arch index of the right and left foot of the gymnasts and the controls were respectively: 31.4 (29.1), 34.01 (34.65); 60.01 (30.3), 63.75 (32.27). Both the arch indices and the ankle dorsiflexion strengths were lower in the gymnasts. Although no correlation was found between strength and arch index in the control group, a significant correlation was observed between eversion strengths and arch indices of the gymnasts (r = 0.41, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Whether or not the findings indicate sport specific adaptation or less training of the ankle dorsiflexors, prospective data are required to elucidate the tendency for pes cavus in gymnasts, for whom stabilisation of the foot is a priority.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Flexibility and musculoskeletal symptomatology in female gymnasts and age-matched controls.

Sixty competitive female gymnasts and 35 age-matched nonathletic controls were interviewed for musculoskeletal symptoms and examined for flexibility. A significantly greater number of gymnasts (P less than 0.01) had musculoskeletal symptoms in the wrist, low back, hip, shin, and foot regions than did the controls. The average number of symptomatic regions per subject was significantly greater (P less than 0.001) in gymnasts (6.17) than in controls (2.25). Gymnasts had greater shoulder flexion and horizontal abduction, lumber flexion, hip extension, and toe-touching abilities (P less than 0.001). Controls surpassed gymnasts only in the extent of elbow supination (P less than 0.001). There were no significant differences in lumbar, knee or elbow extension. No statistically significant correlations in flexibility between different body regions were identifiable in gymnasts or controls. The gymnasts with low back discomfort and greater toe-touching ability than those without symptoms. No other consistent and significant relationships between symptomatology and flexibility in a region were found.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Wrist pain syndrome in the gymnast. Pathogenetic, diagnostic, and therapeutic considerations.

Gymnast wrist pain syndrome presents a difficult diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. It is common and debilitating among gymnasts, resulting in a reduction in training and performance, and may be the result of a response to repetitive trauma during the period of growth and development. This study was undertaken to define and characterize factors contributing to the causes and development of gymnast wrist pain and to establish an effective means of systematic and comprehensive evaluation and treatment. Thirty-eight collegiate gymnasts (20 UCLA: 9 female, 11 male; 18 NCAA: all male) were evaluated by radiograph and questionnaire. Seventy-five percent (22) of the males and 33% (3) of the females had had wrist pain for at least 4 months. The UCLA males averaged 2.82 +/- 1.94 mm positive ulnar variance; this was significantly greater than that of the NCAA males, who averaged 1.28 +/- 1.02 mm (P less than 0.02). The UCLA females averaged 1.44 +/- 1.88 mm positive ulnar variance. All of the gymnasts had significantly greater variance than had the controls, who averaged -0.52 mm (P less than 0.0001). The pommel horse routine was consistently responsible for wrist pain among the males. Anatomical and histological correlation of cryosections with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed to establish the usefulness of MRI in the diagnosis of wrist pain. MRI was able to differentiate the complex transitions between cortical and trabecular bone, articular surfaces, the ligaments, and the triangular fibrocartilage (TFC) complex of the wrist joint. A therapeutic algorithm was established to facilitate the evaluation and management of gymnast wrist pain. Arthroscopic surgery was successful, and arthroscopic findings correlated well with those of MRI and arthrography. Prospective studies are now underway in the pediatric and adolescent population to define further the causes and development of wrist pain problems in gymnasts.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Grip lock injuries to the forearm in male gymnasts.

We performed an epidemiologic survey to estimate the number of grip lock injuries occurring among male high school and college gymnasts. These injuries occur when dowel grips used by the gymnast become locked on the bar as the gymnast's momentum carries him through the skill being performed. We also questioned injured gymnasts to obtain details of their injuries. Thirty-eight high school coaches reported 17 injuries and 32 college coaches reported 21 injuries for a 10-year period; 36% of the coaches responding reported at least one such injury in their program. Of the 23 injured gymnasts who returned detailed questionnaires, 20 had sustained fractures and 9 required surgery. The distal forearm or wrist were the areas injured most often. Fourteen gymnasts had residual pain, seven had functional limitations, and eight had limited motion in the wrist. Fifteen of the 23 athletes were using a cubital (hyperpronated) grip at the time of injury and 19 were using dowel grips. Among the reasons cited for the injury, 18 gymnasts thought that their grips were either too large, worn, or stretched; 8 said the grips slid up their wrists, and 7 cited technical errors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Exercise before puberty may confer residual benefits in bone density in adulthood: studies in active prepubertal and retired female gymnasts.

Exercise during growth may contribute to the prevention of osteoporosis by increasing peak bone mineral density (BMD). However, exercise during puberty may be associated with primary amenorrhea and low peak BMD, while exercise after puberty may be associated with secondary amenorrhea and bone loss. As growth before puberty is relatively sex hormone independent, are the prepubertal years the time during which exercise results in higher BMD? Are any benefits retained in adulthood? We measured areal BMD (g/cm2) by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in 45 active prepubertal female gymnasts aged 10.4 +/- 0.3 years (mean +/- SEM), 36 retired female gymnasts aged 25.0 +/- 0.9 years, and 50 controls. The results were expressed as a standardized deviation (SD) or Z score adjusted for bone age in prepubertal gymnasts and chronological age in retired gymnasts. In the cross-sectional analyses, areal BMD in the active prepubertal gymnasts was 0.7-1.9 SD higher at the weight-bearing sites than the predicted mean in controls (p < 0.01). The Z scores increased as the duration of training increased (r = 0.32-0.48, p ranging between <0.04 and <0.002). During 12 months, the increase in areal BMD (g/cm2/year) of the total body, spine, and legs in the active prepubertal gymnasts was 30-85% greater than in prepubertal controls (all p < 0.05). In the retired gymnasts, the areal BMD was 0.5-1.5 SD higher than the predicted mean in controls at all sites, except the skull (p ranging between <0.06 and <0.0001). There was no diminution across the 20 years since retirement (mean 8 +/- 1 years), despite the lower frequency and intensity of exercise. The prepubertal years are likely to be an opportune time for exercise to increase bone density. As residual benefits are maintained into adulthood, exercise before puberty may reduce fracture risk after menopause.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

VO2max, ventilatory and anaerobic thresholds in rhythmic gymnasts and young female dancers.

BACKGROUND: This study examines the fitness level of a rhythmic gymnasts group and a young female classical dancers group. METHODS: Aerobic power (VO2max), individual ventilatory (IVT) and anaerobic thresholds (IAT) were assessed in 12 elite rhythmic gymnasts, eight elite ballet dancers and 12 sedentary female subjects in the same age range (13-16 yrs). The VO2max, IVT and IAT were assessed during a continuous incremental running treadmill test. RESULTS: At IVT and IAT the VO2max expressed in ml x kg(-1) x min(-1) was significantly different between the three groups of subjects. The highest values were found in gymnasts (30.8+/-2.6 for IVT and 43.8+/-3.5 for IAT) followed by the values of dancers (21.7+/-2.8 for IVT and 30.5+/-3.1 for IAT) and controls (15.6+/-2.0 for IVT and 20.6+/-1.7 for IAT). When the VO2max was expressed in percent of VO2max, the values at IAT were significantly different between all groups (gymnasts: 84.9+/-0.7; dancers: 64.0+/-4.1; controls: 59.7+/-2.4) while at IVT no difference was found between dancers and controls (45.6+/-4.1 and 45.2+/-16, respectively). At maximal effort VO2 was significantly higher both in gymnasts and dancers (51.7+/-4.4 and 47.5+/-3.0 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), respectively), than in controls (34.5+/-2.5 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)). CONCLUSIONS: Although VO2max was similar between gymnasts and dancers, VO2 values at NT and IAT were able to discriminate the higher level of fitness in gymnasts with respect to dancers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Selected body composition and growth measures of junior elite gymnasts.

Selected body composition measures of female junior elite gymnasts (n = 146) were evaluated cross-sectionally (ie, we observed a younger and an older group at one point in time, not the same individuals over time). For certain comparisons, the gymnasts were grouped into a younger group (7- to 10-year-olds) and an older group (11- to 14-year-olds). Gymnasts were in the 50th percentile for weight:height ratio, regardless of age. However, weight:age and height:age percentiles progressively dropped from the 48th to the 20th as age increased. Body fat percentage did not differ significantly between age groups. Triceps and subscapular skinfolds were 63% and 56%, respectively, of the age-related standard for the younger group and 52% and 39%, respectively, of the age-related standard for the older group. Arm muscle circumference and calculated arm muscle area of the gymnasts were in about the 75th percentile, regardless of age grouping. In general, as they grew older, gymnasts became progressively smaller in weight and height for age but were highly muscled for size. The steady age-related drop in height:age and weight:age percentile may be attributable to nutritional deficits, a sport-specific selection favoring retention of small but powerful gymnasts, or a combination of these factors. We recommend that young gymnasts be carefully observed longitudinally by trained nutrition professionals to ensure that inadequate nutrient intake is not a contributing factor to poor growth or health.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1989

Relationship of the anthropometric and physical characteristics of male junior gymnasts to performance.

To evaluate the structural characteristics concomitant to excellence in gymnastics performance, body composition, anthropometric measurements, power, strength, and flexibility were determined in Junior Olympic gymnastics competitors. Physical parameter measurements were performed on 65 male Class I and II all-around gymnasts. National team qualifiers, top 10 Class I and II, were compared to those who placed 11th to 34th in the all-around scoring at the 1987 U.S. Gymnastics Federation Junior Olympic National Championships. The mean percent body fat, 7.1 +/- 1.6%, compared favorably with European gymnasts (7.07 +/- 1.7%). Top Class II gymnasts were significantly leaner (6.1 +/- 0.8% fat) than Class I (6.9 +/- 1.5% fat) and Class II (8.8 +/- 3.2% fat). The mean strength to body ratio was 138.8 +/- 16.8% while the Top Class I exhibited the highest ratio of 148.2 +/- 21.1%. Class II recorded a significantly higher absolute jump and reach (66.8 +/- 19.3 cm) and polyometric (66.2 +/- 6.4 cm) than the other classes. Class I and Top Class II gymnasts exhibited the greatest shoulder rotation while Top Class I exhibited the greatest hip flexion. Grip strength was low for all groups. To Class I and Top Class II when compared to other classes were characterized as shorter in stature, stronger in both relative and absolute strength, possessed greater flexibility through the hip region, shoulder girdle, back, were leaner, and possessed more muscle mass.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Dropping in and dropping out: participation motives of current and former youth gymnasts.

This study examined motives for participating in and discontinuing sport for 106 competitive, recreational, and former youth gymnasts. Similar to previous studies on participation motives in children's sport, gymnasts cited multiple reasons for their attraction to sport with the most important being competence, fitness, and challenge for the competitive gymnasts; competence, fitness, fun and situational for the recreational gymnasts; and competence, action, challenge and fun for the former gymnasts. A factor analysis was conducted and revealed seven categories of motivational factors, similar to those found by Gill et al. (1983). No support was found for a relationship between motives for gymnastic participation and reasons for attrition. The most important reasons for leaving gymnastics were having other things to do, injuries, not liking the pressure, not having enough fun, and too time consuming.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Problems of the upper extremity in gymnastics.

The majority of upper extremity problems experienced by gymnasts are not considered injuries but are regarded as consequences of the sport. Treatment of these problems should include treatment of not only the injury but also the cause. This requires the cooperation of the gymnast, his or her coach, and a physician familiar with the demands placed upon the upper extremity in gymnastics. The level of a gymnast's capabilities must be recognized. Improper techniques must be corrected. Emphasis must be placed on rehabilitation for shoulder problems and strengthening exercises for the elbow and wrist in attempt to decrease the symptoms from repeated forced extension. In the words of Peter Kormann, an Olympic medalist in gymnastics, "All gymnasts work out and compete with ongoing problems in their upper extremities. These problems are only considered serious injuries when the gymnast can no longer compete."

Arm Injuries↗
PubMed2003

Body images of 4-8-year-old girls at the outset of their first artistic gymnastics class.

OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of this investigation was to compare body images of 54 girls (4-8 years old) who were beginning their first gymnastics class to 54 age-matched (+/-1 year) and % body fat-matched (+/-3%) girls not participating in gymnastics. METHOD: Ratings of actual and ideal body size and a computed measure of body dissatisfaction (actual minus ideal) were obtained. Body composition was measured with dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS: Girls beginning gymnastics did not differ significantly from controls on (mean +/- SD) actual (2.2 +/- 1.4 vs. 2.1 +/- 1.4), ideal (1.8 +/- 1.3 vs. 1.8 +/- 1.5), or body dissatisfaction (0.39 +/- 1.8 vs. 0.26 +/- 1.4) scores. DISCUSSION: Body images of 4-8-year-old girls beginning their first artistic gymnastics class do not differ from non-gymnast controls matched on age and % body fat. This observation casts doubt on the idea that young girls who are dissatisfied with their body and want to be smaller are more likely to enroll in gymnastics classes than girls without this type of body dissatisfaction.

Body Composition↗
PubMed1992

Serum cortisol concentration and testosterone to cortisol ratio in elite prepubescent male gymnasts during training.

Serum cortisol concentrations and testosterone:cortisol concentration ratios of eight prepubescent elite male gymnasts (mean age 10 years 11 months) and 11 controls (mean age 11 years 1 month) were examined during 5 consecutive training days. During this period, the gymnasts trained 3 h each day with moderate intensity mobility, strength and skill exercises while the controls were relatively sedentary. Blood samples were taken from all the boys in both groups before (1630 hours) and 30 min after (2000 hours) training on 4 days. Serum cortisol concentrations of the gymnasts were not significantly different from those of the controls throughout the experiment. Serum cortisol concentrations of both groups were significantly larger (P < 0.05) at 1630 hours than at 2000 hours, indicating that cortisol secretion followed the typical adult circadian change, seemingly unaltered by training. However, there was a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in the testosterone:cortisol ratio of the gymnasts when compared with controls from day 1 to day 3. After a rest on day 4 the testosterone: cortisol ratio of the gymnasts significantly increased (P < 0.05) but the ratio of the control group also increased indicating that there may have been some day-to-day change by factor(s) other than training. The most obvious factor which may have accounted for the unresponsiveness of serum cortisol concentration to the gymnastics training was that the exercise intensity was too low. However, several days of the training seemed to reduce the anabolic to catabolic balance but further experiments are needed to confirm this finding.

Child↗
PubMed1996

An arthroscopic and electromyographic study of painful shoulders in elite gymnasts.

Shoulder problems are common in overhead sports like baseball, basketball and volleyball. Although gymnastics also includes overhead activities, there are few reports about shoulder problems in this sports activity. During the time period 1992-1995 we treated five young competitive gymnasts for shoulder pain. Arthroscopy revealed that they were all suffering from SLAP lesions or other labral pathology, although they had never dislocated their shoulders. These injuries have not been described earlier in connection with gymnastics. In a survey of 13 gymnasts in an elite club, we found that six (46%) complained about shoulder pain. Since four of these athletes explained that their shoulder pain started acutely during ring exercises in suspension while one suffered a slower onset with pain also during parallel bar exercises, we undertook an electromyographic study of the shoulder musculature of three normal elite gymnasts during exercises on the parallel bars and rings. We found that during the ring exercises in suspension there was a "critical phase" during which the muscle activity around the shoulder was very low, leading to great articular stresses. This might explain the occurrence of labral lesions like the SLAP lesions in this type of athlete. If shoulder pain in elite gymnasts does not respond to rest and physical therapy over 2-3 months, a shoulder arthroscopy should be considered.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Oral, maxillofacial and general injuries in gymnasts.

It is estimated that between 4 and 18 per cent of all sports injuries involve the maxillofacial region. Among the various sporting activities, gymnastics has been rated as a high-injury risk discipline. The aim of this study was to document the extent and type of oral, maxillofacial and general injuries among gymnasts. The majority of injuries occurred during training and the severity of the injury was strongly associated with the skill level of the gymnast; in other words, advanced level gymnasts suffered more serious injuries, e.g. concussion and direct orofacial injuries. However, 7 per cent had experienced damage to the 'hard' tissues of the mouth during the past 12 months. No gymnast interviewed wore a mouth guard and their knowledge of dental first aid was poor. The study highlights the clear need for a structured health promotion initiative, aimed at those participating in and coaching gymnastics.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

An application of psychophysiology in sports psychology: heart rate responses to relevant and irrelevant stimuli as a function of anxiety and defensiveness in elite gymnasts.

One problem in the optimization of athletic performance is that consistency in practice situations is not always carried over to competitive situations. There is an increase in irrelevant stimuli in competition which cannot always be gated out satisfactorily by the anxious athlete. We investigated the physiological responses to relevant and irrelevant stimuli of 48 elite female gymnasts differing in levels of anxiety and defensiveness. Cardiac responses were recorded to tone presentations and analyzed as a function of instructions, anxiety manipulation and group. The results suggest that phasic responses of high-anxious gymnasts were larger than those of low-anxious gymnasts. High-anxious gymnasts experience more difficulty in completely gating out the occurrence of irrelevant stimuli than do low-anxious gymnasts. Finally, under anxiety-producing conditions, high levels of defensiveness and anxiety in combination appear to have a debilitating effect on the gymnast's ability to discontinue processing of irrelevant stimuli, while truly low-anxious subjects appear distracted from processing relevant stimuli. Further investigation of the interactions between levels of trait anxiety and anxiety-producing situations in a sport-specific domain appear warranted. The role of defensiveness in these interactions should also be investigated.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Modelling the parallel bars in men's artistic gymnastics.

The modelling of the parallel bars-gymnast system is considered. A 2D frontal plane model for the parallel bars apparatus is developed, enabling technique and injury analysis to be undertaken when combined with an interacting gymnast body model. We also demonstrate how such a gymnast body model may be combined with the parallel bars model by use of a simplifying symmetry consideration about the gymnast's sagittal plane. This symmetry consideration implies that just half the gymnast body and one of the two bars, are needed in the total model. We found that midpoint vertical parallel bars dynamics may be modelled by three parameters, using a single damped spring-mass model with linear force-displacement characteristics. Horizontally, as opposed to the vertical direction, bar endpoints accounted for a substantial part (35%) of the midpoint movement, demanding two serially connected springs for this direction. One spring represented the absolute horizontal movement of the bar endpoints, while the other spring represented the superimposed horizontal movement of bar midpoint relative to the endpoints. Both horizontal springs had the same characteristics as the vertical spring, giving a total of nine parameters for the three-spring bar model. Bar parameters were estimated by fitting the modelled bar movements to corresponding measured movements caused by a 140 kg lateral pendulum below the bar midpoint. Validation was then undertaken by comparing model-predicted bar movements to corresponding measurements using lateral pendulums of 100 kg and 60 kg, respectively. Finally, a gymnast handstand position was modelled and used to compare model-predicted and measured bar oscillations following a somersault backwards to a handstand position. The model gave convincing predictions of bar movements both for the 100 kg (1 period, RMS error of 7.0 mm) and 60 kg (1 period, RMS error of 3.7 mm) pendulums, as well as for the somersault landing (2 periods, RMS error of 8.1 mm).

Art↗