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PubMed2005

Cross-cultural validity of the masculine and feminine gender role stress scales.

The objective was to examine the usefulness of Dutch versions of the Masculine Gender Role Stress (MGRS; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987) Scale and the Feminine Gender Role Stress (Gillespie & Eisler, 1992) Scale in The Netherlands. Undergraduate students (N = 2,239) completed both gender role stress scales. A subgroup (n = 508) also completed questionnaires about masculinity-femininity and daily hassles. With regard to both gender role stress scales, results of confirmatory factor analyses supported the original 5-factor structures and revealed no cross-sex differences on the factor models. Reliability and homogeneity indexes were all well within acceptable to satisfactory limits. Further evidence of construct validity was found in (a) medium to large correlations with daily hassles, (b) sex differences on the FGRS scale, and (c) small to medium correlations with masculinity-femininity. The major discrepancy with previous studies was that for Dutch female and male students, the MGRS scale was not sex specific. Taken together, this study sustained the utility of both gender role stress scales for use in The Netherlands.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Organizational effects of testosterone via aromatization on feminine reproductive behavior and neural progestin receptors in rat brain.

The present studies were undertaken to determine whether estrogenic actions of testosterone during development govern the apparently irreversible suppression of feminine reproductive behavior in the male and lead to a suppression of the capacity of the ventromedial nucleus (VMN) of the hypothalamus to produce cytosol progestin receptors (CPRs) in response to estrogen priming. Timed-pregnant female rats received daily injections of the aromatase inhibitor 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD; 5 mg/0.2 ml) from the 14th day of pregnancy until parturition. Males exposed to ATD in utero received Silastic capsules containing ATD for the first 10 days of life. Some females from litters not exposed to ATD received injections of estradiol benzoate (EB; 10 micrograms) 6-12 h and 3 days after birth. The remaining pups not exposed to ATD served as controls. Pups were gonadectomized on days 60-70 and were tested for feminine reproductive behavior or killed for CPR measurements on days 85-90. To elicit behavior, animals received daily injections of EB (15 micrograms for 3 days) and one injection of progesterone (500 micrograms) 4 h before testing. To induce CPRs, animals received EB but not progesterone. Significantly less receptive and proceptive behavior was observed in males and females given perinatal EB than in normal females and males given perinatal ATD. The CPR content of the VMN in males was similar to that in females given perinatal EB and significantly less than that in normal females and males given perinatal ATD. Neonatal hormonal manipulation did not alter the CPR content of other hypothalamic or preoptic nuclei. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that one event mediated by estradiol which underlies activation of feminine reproductive behavior is the induction of CPRs in the VMN. This capacity is apparently restricted by estrogen-mediated events in males during the perinatal period.

Androstatrienes↗
PubMed2006

Smiling faces rated more feminine than serious faces in Japan.

It has been reported that women and girls smile more frequently and more effectively than men and boys. It is expected that this correlation between femaleness and smiling affects the processing of faces, and consequently, smiling faces may be perceived to be more feminine. Participants viewed 30 photographs featuring smiling and serious facial expressions of both male and female subjects and rated them for femininity or masculinity. The result indicated that smiling faces significantly more frequently gave the impression of being more feminine. The interaction between the sex of the faces and their expression was not significant.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Masculinity-femininity and perceptual style on the Circles Test.

In relation to the open perceptual style characteristics a classification of responses to the Torrance's Circles Test provided a measure of psychosexual identification. To the initial stimulus inner-spaced and outer-spaced responses can be interpreted as feminine and masculine styles of information processing. The observations were validated by the Mf scale of the MMPI. Masculine women gave fewer inner-space responses than masculine men, and feminine men gave more inner-space responses than feminine women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Variations in feminine hygiene practices of military women in deployed and noncombat environments.

There is limited information on how military women manage feminine hygiene practices in combat and noncombat environments. The purpose of this study was to describe feminine hygiene practices of military women in deployed and noncombat (normal) environments. A nonexperimental descriptive research design was used. The study used a survey questionnaire, the Deployed Female Health Practice Questionnaire, which was developed specifically for military women to report their experiences with hygiene issues. Significant differences between deployed and normal environments were found in the areas of types of menses management products used and in douching and handwashing practices. Continuing education about safe feminine hygiene practices will help military women cope better in deployed (field) environments. Recommendations suggest further study on intervention strategies for hygiene management practices.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Masculinity and femininity in twin children: genetic and environmental factors.

Genetic and environmental origins of individual differences in masculine and feminine personality attributes were investigated in a sample of 38 monozygotic and 32 dizygotic twin pairs (total N = 140) during pre- and early adolescence. Self-report measures of both masculine and feminine characteristics were obtained for each child using 2 standardized instruments: the Children's Personality Attributes Questionnaire (CPAQ) and the Adolescent Self-Perception Inventory (ASPI). Multivariate biometrical analyses revealed significant genetic influences in all measures, accounting for 20%-48% of the observed variation in each. Environmental influences, which explained the remaining 52%-80% of variance in masculinity and femininity, were apparently specific to each individual and not shared by members of the same twin pair. The results underscore the importance of considering both genetic and environmental factors in gender-role development, particularly in studies of family resemblance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

A study on feminine sexuality.

This article tends to demonstrate the existence of an early feminine identification in the girl. For this purpose it presents some clinical material pertaining to a woman with clear evidence of an early Oedipus complex, involving a precocious link with the penis and the father. We found that the difficulties revealed by the patient with respect to her feminine identifications and her sexuality, are due to deficiencies in relation to the primary object, that were shifted to a difficult link with the penis. The material also shows that some positive elements in the tie of this particular patient with the father, were subsequently important in the acquisition of feminine aspects.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Feminization of hepatic cytochrome P450s by nominal levels of growth hormone in the feminine plasma profile.

The feminine profile of continuous growth hormone secretion was restored at various concentrations to hypophysectomized, thyroxine-supplemented female rats to determine the minimum signaling concentrations of the hormone required to maintain female-like expression levels of gender-dependent hepatic cytochrome P450s (P450s). Rat growth hormone was infused by intraperitoneally implanted osmotic minipumps, and the resulting circulating concentrations and profiles were determined by radioimmunoassay of serially collected plasma samples. Restoration of feminine growth hormone profiles at 3% of physiological concentration completely suppressed male-specific CYP2C11, CYP2C13, CYP2A2, and CYP3A2. Although significant levels of female-dependent isoforms were expressed at this growth hormone concentration, their full expression required, somewhat higher plasma concentrations of the hormone; CYP2A1 and 5 alpha-reductase were increased to normal female levels with only 6-12% of physiological concentrations of the hormone, normal expression levels of CYP2C12 required approximately 12-25% physiological hormone levels, and CYP2C7 required approximately 25-50% of the normal growth hormone profile to attain female-like expression levels. When determined, protein and specific catalytic activities were in agreement with mRNA levels, supporting the conclusion that growth hormone regulates gender-dependent expression of P450 isoforms by transcription initiation. There was little effect of gender, hypophysectomy, or growth hormone replacement on CYP2C6, growth hormone receptor, and growth hormone-binding protein mRNAs. In contrast, insulin-like growth factor-1 mRNA was sexually dimorphic (male > female), virtually disappeared after hypophysectomy, and was restored to female-like levels with plasma growth hormone concentrations equaling 12-25% of normal. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of nominal growth hormone concentrations (undetectable by available radioimmunoassay) in an otherwise feminine plasma profile to maintain female-like expression levels of gender-dependent P450s.

3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1996

Functional infertility and femininity: a comparison of infertile women and their mothers.

The hypotheses that functionally infertile women and their mothers will express more difficulties in femininity and motherhood than organically infertile women and their mothers, and that mothers of functionally infertile women will evince less such difficulties were investigated with groups of functionally infertile women, former mechanically infertile women, and their mothers (n = 20, each). The results showed significantly more difficulties in the functional daughters/mothers groups. Each daughters' group scored similar to their respective mothers. There were significant correlations between the results of the daughters and their mothers only for the functionally infertile group. While the existence of a conflicted maternal background was demonstrated, difficulties in femininity and motherhood did not appear to constitute a sufficient cause for functional infertility.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Indicators of feminine gender identity in latency-aged boys in the Draw a Person and the Rorschach tests.

Seven diagnostic indicators were examined for their potential to identify latency aged boys who had feminine gender identity. Nineteen emotionally disturbed boys (average age 10.2) with feminine gender identity were compared on these indicators with 21 control boys. The indicators which were found to be valid were drawing the female figure with a greater value than the male figure in the DAP; difficulty in identification with the male figure in stories to the DAP; a low relative rate of male human responses and/or a high relative rate of female human responses in the Rorschach; and initial butterfly response to card V in the Rorschach. Using these indicators in combination reduced the false positive and negative rates associated with each individual indicator.

Affective Symptoms↗
PubMed1997

Femininity, masculinity, and disordered eating: a meta-analytic review.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the developmental psychopathology of eating disorders, it is crucial to explain the large gender discrepancy in the rates of these disorders, especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. In this paper, meta-analysis was used to examine the relationship between gender role adherence and the existence of eating problems. METHOD: Of the 69 studies examined, 22 contained data deemed valid for the analyses. Measures of difference (d) and homogeneity were calculated. These studies used the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) or the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) to measure gender role adherence. RESULTS: Findings indicated a small, heterogeneous positive relationship between femininity and eating problems and a small, heterogeneous negative relationship between masculinity and eating problems. Studies that used a clinical sample showed a larger discrepancy in masculinity scores between the eating-disordered and the control groups than did studies using surveys to identify eating problems. Six studies measured gender role traditionalism. The eating-disordered groups did not differ significantly on these measures compared to the control groups. DISCUSSION: Despite construct validity problems with the use of the PAQ and the BSRI in this area of study, data suggest that gender role is related to eating problems. Crucial aspects of femininity likely to be related to eating problems need to be operationalized and their link to eating disorders examined.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

The measurement of femininity.

Preliminary empiric research with The Femininity Study identifies 10 factorially derived factors that indicate the general dimmensions of femininity with particular reference to female self-concept, feelings of inadequacy related to sexual characteristics, and deficiencies of female role-playing. Pilot studies indicate that wide differences occur across time both individually and in different demographic groups so that it is necessary to study the development of sex attitudes across time. Further cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are necessary to discover whether the derived factors are specific to females or distributed in differing degrees among humans in general. No assumptions were made as to whether the obtained factors are unipolar or bipolar, and the present data do not resolve this issue.

Attitude↗
PubMed1994

Masculinity, femininity, and subjective experiences of depression.

In this study, the relations of masculinity, femininity, and gender with various depressive experiences were examined in a sample of normal young men and women. The results indicated that greater masculinity generally was associated with lower levels of different depressive experiences in men and women. Greater femininity was related to advantageous outcomes for various depressive experiences in a relatively weaker and gender-specific fashion, but also was associated with greater anaclitic depression in men and women. The variable of gender alone was either weakly related or unrelated altogether to various depressive experiences. These results suggest that culturally defined gender-role characteristics may be more important than gender with respect to different aspects of depressive experiences in normal young adults.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Masculine and feminine voices: making ethical decisions in the care of the dying.

Drawing on the example of one specific Ethics Committee, the author delineates feminine and masculine styles of ethical decision making and work with the dying as two sides of what it means to be humanistic in patient care. The author draws particularly on the work of Carol Gilligan to differentiate feminine from masculine approaches.

California↗
PubMed1976

Male homosexuality, psychiatric patient status, and psychological masculinity and femininity.

The personality dynamics of homosexuality, psychiatric patient status, and psychological masculinity and femininity were assessed for four groups of 45 male subjects in a full factorial comparison. Results show that homosexuality can be significantly characterized by the Dynamic Personality Inventory independently of psychiatric attendance and that aspects of sex role, considered both normatively and within the sample, are especially effective in that respect. Emphasis is laid on a multidimensional approach to masculinity and femininity. Results are further interpreted with regard to parental relations and the minority status of male homosexuals.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Is feminine differentiation of the brain hormonally determined?

The androgen insensitive, genetically male rat pseudohermaphrodite displays neither masculine or feminine sexual behavior when primed with the appropriate sex hormones. Although in the absence of androgen imprinting the animal develops anatomically as female, our results suggest that feminine differentiation of the brain requires active imprinting by perinatal hormone(s), possibly adrenal progesterone.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Differential effects of the serotonin1A agonist, 8-OH-DPAT, on masculine and feminine sexual behavior of the ferret.

Administration of the serotonin (5-HT)1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) facilitates the expression of masculine sexual behavior in male and female rats as well as in male rhesus monkeys and inhibits lordosis behavior in female rats. In the present study the effects of 8-OH-DPAT on masculine coital and feminine proceptive and receptive behaviors were evaluated in the ferret, a carnivore. Doses of 8-OH-DPAT (0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg) that facilitate masculine sexual behavior in rats inhibited masculine sexual behavior in castrated, estradiol benzoate (EB)-treated male ferrets. Lower doses of 8-OH-DPAT (5 or 10 micrograms/kg) had no effect on the expression of masculine sexual behavior in either males or females. In contrast to the female rat, administration of 8-OH-DPAT significantly facilitated receptive behaviors in ovariectomized, EB-treated female ferrets. None of the doses of 8-OH-DPAT tested modified proceptive behaviors of gonadectomized, EB-treated male or female ferrets, as assessed in a T-maze in which the subjects could choose to approach either a castrated, sexually inactive male or a castrated, testosterone-primed stud male. Thus whereas the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT facilitates masculine sexual behavior and inhibits lordosis in the rat, it inhibits masculine sexual behavior and facilitates receptivity in the ferret. The different effects of 8-OH-DPAT observed in these two species may reflect differences in the neural control of their masculine coital and feminine receptive responses, respectively.

8-Hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin↗
PubMed1983

Intrahypothalamic 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine facilitates feminine sexual behavior and decreases [3H]imipramine binding and 5-HT uptake.

5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) injected into the hypothalamus facilitated feminine sexual behavior in ovariectomized, estrogen-treated female rats beginning 9 days post-lesion. 5,7-DHT treatment was associated with decreased [3H]5-HT but not [3H]NE uptake in the whole hypothalamus and with decreased [3H]-imipramine binding in some hypothalamic nuclei. These data provide the first demonstration using chemical lesions that 5-HT neurons may exert tonic inhibition on hormone-mediated feminine sexual behavior.

5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine↗