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PubMed2004

Effect of fungicide treatment on the quality of wheat flour and breadmaking.

Fungicides are applied to crop plants to ensure disease protection and improve growth. To assess the effects of five commercial foliar and spike fungicides in four different combinations on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), various quality parameters and flour processing properties, including baking quality, were determined. Three commonly used wheat cultivars with different quality classes (E, B, and C) were tested. Falling number, crude protein content, water absorption ability, protease activity, viscosity, and the free amino acid content were mainly lower in the fungicide-treated grains than in the untreated grains. None of the fungicides caused any significant changes in the wet gluten content, dough properties, the mono- and oligosaccharide content, or the breadmaking quality. In general, the commercial fungicide treatments did not cause any statistically significant differences between the treated and the untreated samples with respect to the quality parameters analyzed, although there were indeed significant differences between the three cultivars themselves.

Adsorption↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Residues of insecticides, and fungicides in fruit produced in Ontario, Canada, 1986-1988.

Between 1986 and 1988, 306 composite samples of fruit representing eight commodities were collected from farm deliveries to the marketplace in Ontario, Canada. All samples were analysed for insecticides and fungicides. The analysis procedure included tests for organochlorine, organophosphorus, synthetic pyrethroid and methylcarbamate insecticides and dithiocarbamate, dicarboximide and organochlorine fungicides. The commodities tested included apples, blueberries, cherries, grapes, peaches, pears, raspberries and strawberries. In 14% of all fruit samples, pesticide residues were below the detection limits, which ranged between 0.005 and 0.02 mg/kg. A further 14% had total combined pesticide residues below 0.1 mg/kg. Total combined fungicide and insecticide residues ranged from 0.1 to 11 mg/kg in 72% of samples. Six different pesticides were in violation of maximum residue limits (MRL) on 11 (3.6%) of fruit samples. Captan exceeded the 5 mg/kg MRL in five samples and EBDC exceeded the 7 mg/kg MRL in two. Other violations included single fruit samples with dicofol, endosulphan, phosalone and iprodione above the MRL. Raw grapes harvested for wine contained residues of 10 pesticides and the number changed little following the crushing of the grapes; however, fermentation into wine significantly reduced residues. Six insecticides and four fungicides were present on the raw grapes and 4/105 were above the MRL. Following crushing, four insecticides and five fungicides were identified and 4/40 were above the MRL. In wine only three insecticides were identified and all were well below the MRL. Carbaryl appeared to be the most persistent, declining very little between raw grapes and wine.

Food Contamination↗
PubMed2004

Adsorption, transformation, and bioavailability of the fungicides carbendazim and iprodione in soil, alone and in combination.

When studying the effect of mixtures of toxic substances on soil organisms, attention must be paid to peculiarities in exposure to mixtures as opposed to that of single toxicants. The fungicides carbendazim and iprodione compete in the adsorption to soil. The presence of iprodione reduced the adsorption of carbendazim by 30%, while carbendazim reduced the adsorption of iprodione by 70%. Iprodione had little effect on the transformation rate of carbendazim in soil. However, carbendazim retarded the transformation of iprodione in soil by 26%. The concentration of the fungicides in pore water was found to be substantially higher for mixtures than when a fungicide alone was present in the soil. The effect of the additional fungicide on the concentration is especially apparent in the period following the first 1 to 2 weeks of the incubation. The inclusion of copper in the mixture has little additional effect on the concentration of the fungicides in pore water.

Adsorption↗
PubMed2000

The ABC transporter AtrB from Aspergillus nidulans mediates resistance to all major classes of fungicides and some natural toxic compounds.

This paper reports the functional characterization of AtrBp, an ABC transporter from Aspergillus nidulans. AtrBp is a multidrug transporter and has affinity to substrates belonging to all major classes of agricultural fungicides and some natural toxic compounds. The substrate profile of AtrBp was determined by assessing the sensitivity of deletion and overexpression mutants of atrB to several toxicants. All mutants showed normal growth as compared to control isolates. DeltaatrB mutants displayed increased sensitivity to anilinopyrimidine, benzimidazole, phenylpyrrole, phenylpyridylamine, strobirulin and some azole fungicides. Increased sensitivity to the natural toxic compounds camptothecin (alkaloid), the phytoalexin resveratrol (stilbene) and the mutagen 4-nitroquinoline oxide was also found. Overexpression mutants were less sensitive to a wide range of chemicals. In addition to the compounds mentioned above, decreased sensitivity to a broader range of azoles, dicarboximides, quintozene, acriflavine and rhodamine 6G was observed. Decreased sensitivity in overexpression mutants negatively correlated with levels of atrB expression. Interestingly, the overexpression mutants displayed increased sensitivity to dithiocarbamate fungicides, chlorothalonil and the iron-activated antibiotic phleomycin. Accumulation of the azole fungicide [(14)C]fenarimol by the overexpression mutants was lower as compared to the parental isolate, demonstrating that AtrBp acts by preventing intracellular accumulation of the toxicant. Various metabolic inhibitors increased accumulation levels of [(14)C]fenarimol in the overexpression mutants to wild-type levels, indicating that reduced accumulation of the fungicide in these mutants is due to increased energy-dependent efflux as a result of higher pump capacity of AtrBp.

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters↗
PubMed1999

The accumulation and histological effects of organometallic fungicides propineb and maneb in the livers of pregnant rats and their offspring.

Dithiocarbamate propineb and maneb are organometal fungicides, which are widely used for the control of diseases in plants. Female Wistar rats were exposed orally to 200 and 400 ppm propineb (Zn-containing dithiocarbamate) and 250 ppm maneb (Mn-containing dithiocarbamate), from the 6th day of gestation up to birth. We found that the body weights of both newborn litters and their fungicide-treated mothers were lower than those of controls. Histological examination of the livers of fungicide-treated pregnant females and the offspring showed a variety of histopathological effects. Moreover, the analysis of Zn and Mn concentrations in the livers of pregnant females exposed to organometallic fungicides during pregnancy demonstrated that the metal concentrations in the liver were higher than those of controls. Similarly, the hepatic metal concentrations were significantly increased in the litters, indicating the transplacental passage of the organometallic fungicides.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Phytotoxic effects of benzimidazole fungicides on bedding plants.

Benzimidazoles are effective and widely used fungicides, but they may be phytotoxic. We studied the effects of a single drench application of six benzimidazoles and one acetanilide fungicide on photosynthetic gas exchange, growth, development, and nutrient levels of four species of bedding plants in twenty growth-chamber and four greenhouse studies. Daily carbon gain and carbon-use efficiency were calculated from continuous crop gas-exchange measurements in the growth chambers. The maximum labeled rate of Benlate DF caused a 7- to 10-day decrease in net photosynthesis and daily carbon gain in transplants of all species. It also caused pronounced interveinal chlorosis and a 2- to 3-day delay in flowering. Growth of Benlate DF-treated plants was reduced more at high (90%) than at low (60% to 80%) relative humidity. Benlate DF had severe effects on 2-week-old petunia (Petunia xhybrida) seedlings in plug flats, reducing photosynthesis 25% to 57%. Cleary's 3336 WP decreased photosynthesis in some trials. Benlate DF reduced photosynthesis within 24 hours, but 3336 WP effects did not become apparent until 1 week after the treatment. This suggests different modes of inhibition. 3336 WP also caused leaf-tip and marginal chlorosis in impatiens (Impatiens wallerana). Mertect 340-F was extremely phytotoxic but is not labeled for drench applications (it was included because of its chemical similarity to other benzimidazoles). The only benzimidazole fungicide that did not reduce photosynthesis was Derosal, but it caused slight interveinal chlorosis in some studies with petunia. Benlate DF and Derosal decreased leaf Ca levels. Subdue (or metalaxyl), an acetanilide fungicide, did not affect photosynthesis or cause any visual symptoms. Our results indicate that some benzimidazole fungicides can cause growth reductions and visual damage in bedding plants.

Acetanilides↗
PubMed1975

Studies on the cytogenetic activity of some common fungicides in higher plants.

Seeds of barley and secondary roots of Vicia faba were exposed to treatments with 23 of the most commonly used fungicides with a view to discovering the effect of these fungicides on the germination, seedling injury and chromosome abnormalities in the former, and the spectrum and frequency of chromosomal aberrations in the latter. Sixteen fungicides reduced the percentage of seed germination, induced seedling injury and produced cytological anomalies of varying degrees in barley. More potent fungicides were further tested in the secondary roots of Vicia faba which were found to produce a significant amount of chromosomal aberrations in the form of chromatid and isolocus breaks and exchanges of chromatid type. Based on theseo bservations, fungicides Dexon, Benlaté, Cerasan, Copperson, Lonocol, Morestan, Hexasan and Karathane could be classified as strong radioimimetic agents. Their role as environmental mutagens in enhancing the spontaneous mutation rate has been discussed and it has been concluded that these constitute genetic and environmental hazards of great magnitude to the eco-system where they are released.

Amides↗
PubMed2004

Fungicidal impact on chickpea--Mesorhizobium symbiosis.

The effects of carbendazim, captan, thiram, and mancozeb, on plant vitality, chlorophyll content, N uptake, protein content, nodulation, and seed yield in chickpea (Cicer arietinun) were assessed in a controlled environment. Seeds treated with fungicides at 1 and 1.5 g.a.i. kg seed had no significant adverse effect on plant vigor, seed yield, and N and protein contents. In contrast, fungicides applied at 2 g.a.i./kg of captan, thiram and mancozeb, significantly reduced the measured parameters. In general, the toxicity of fungicides in terms of seed yield increased in the following order: Control=carbendazim > thiram > captan > mancozeb. Total chlorophyll content in foliage declined consistently with fungicides dose rates and application days. Seeds treated with lower rates of fungicides significantly increased nodulation (nodule number per plant and its dry mass) and were compatible with chickpea inoculum used in this study. Although carbendazim at 2 g.a.i. kg seed had no phytotoxic effect assessed under greenhouse conditions, it significantly reduced the chlorophyll content, nodulation (60d) and N content in shoots.

Chlorophyll↗
PubMed2005

Signum, a new fungicide for control of leaf diseases in outdoor vegetables.

During three years, the new fungicide Signum, containing 6.7% pyraclostrobine + 26.7 % boscalid and developed by BASF. has been evaluated in leek, carrots and cabbages in several outdoor field experiments under practical conditions and during one year in outdoor lettuce. In leek, Phytophthora porri is one of the major leaf diseases causing lesions on differ ent places on the leaves, resulting in at least extra labour costs for trimming or even worse sometimes resulting in complete crop loss. So far, crop protection consists of repeated applications of fungicides especially during autumn and winter. Pyraclostrobin + boscalid has been evaluated in comparison with the fungicides mancozeb, mancozeb + metalaxyl-M and azoxystrobin. The progress of the disease during the growth season is discussed. For all parameters evaluated, pyraclostrobin + boscalid gave comparable or even better results than reference products. Especially during 2003, a small drop of the activity of benalaxyl against P. porri has been observed after repeated applications. In carrots, Erisiphe heraclei and Alternaria dauci are both the most common leaf diseases causing yield and quality loss. During periods of very high pressure of A. dauci, pyraclostrobin + boscalid, applied in a three weeks interval, revealed a superior activity compared with triazole references or compared with azoxystrobin. Against E. heraclei, a good control but also a clear dose response activity have been observed with pyraclostrobin + boscalid. Yield gain was approximately 30 ton /ha compared wih untreated. In Brussels sprouts, good efficacy was obtained against Mycosphaerella spp., Albugo candida and Alternaria spp. In outdoor lettuce Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum are the most important diseases causing crop damage and reducing the quality of the heads. Pyraclostrobin + boscalid was evaluated in comparison with the standard fungicide iprodione. The plant protection was better with the new fungicide pyraclostrobin + boscalid.

Brassica↗
PubMed1990

[Subchronic toxic effect of the grain fungicide PF-70 on the electrolyte barrier of the gastric mucosa in rats].

The fungicide for corn PF-70 contains 21% of sulphur, 8.4% of mancozeb, and 0.6% of triadimefon . The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the fungicide on the gastric mucosa electrolyte barrier in rats. Mucosa lesion is known to be one of the risk factors of chronic peptic ulcer disease. The experiments were carried out on 80 rats of Wistar strain. The animals were divided into 5 groups--males and females, separately. The fungicide was given for 13 weeks, at the following doses: 100, 400, 1600, and 6400 mg of active substance per 1 kg of fodder. The gastric mucosa electrolyte barrier was examined by determining the transmural electric potential differences (PD) in mucosa before and after treatment with 150 mmlo of hydrochloric acid and 40 mmol of acetylsalicylic acid solutions. No changes in general condition of the animals were observed. An increase in fodder consumption was observed in males receiving the fungicide at doses of 1600 and 6400 mg per 1 kg of fodder. Females exhibited a decrease in body mass after intoxication at concentration of 6400 mg/kg fodder. A decrease in PD was found in all groups intoxicated with the fungicide, irrespective of the animal sex.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1976

[Microbial breakdown of acid anilide fungicides (author's transl)].

o-Toluylanilide, 2.5-dimethylfuran-3-carboxanilide, 5.6-dihydro-2-methyl-1.4-oxathiine-3-carboxanilide and other acid anilides are systemic fungicides which act selectively on rusts and smuts. From garden soil a Nocardia sp. was isolated which can grow with acid anilide fungicides as the only source of carbon. From this Nocardia sp. it was possible to produce mutants which are blocked genetically at various steps of the breakdown pathway of these acid anilide fungicides. It was possible to follow the breakdown pathway with the aid of accumulates of the rough I strain and of the mutants as well as by growth and enzyme tests. Breakdown starts with hydrolytic splitting of the acid amide bond by an acylamidase. The acid components of the fungicides are accumulated in the medium; they do not affect the growth. The aniline component is oxidized to pyrocatechol by a dioxygenase. Methyl and chloro-derivatives of aniline which are formed in the soil due to the hydrolysis of herbicides and fungicides, are also converted into the respective pyrocatechol derivatives. By orthocleavage cis-cis muconic acid forms from pyrocatechol. This compound is metabolized into succinate and acetyl CoA via the beta ketoadipate pathway.

Amidohydrolases↗
PubMed1992

Flow cytometric assay for estimating fungicidal activity of amphotericin B in human serum.

We describe a simple and rapid bioassay for estimating fungicidal activity of Amphotericin B in human serum using flow cytometry. The method exploits the fact that Candida albicans damaged by Amphotericin B show a decrease in size and take up propidium iodide to exhibit a red fluorescence after deoxycholate treatment. These phenomena display characteristic dose dependencies, and their assessment permits serum fungicidal activity to be broadly grouped into three categories: (1) subfungicidal; (2) fungicidal; and (3) strongly fungicidal. In normal human serum, these three categories correspond to Amphotericin B concentrations of 0 less than or equal to 0.5 micrograms/ml, 0.75-1.5 micrograms/ml, and greater than 2 micrograms/ml, respectively. Pilot analysis of serum samples obtained from four patients undergoing Amphotericin B therapy confirmed the feasibility of using the flow cytometric assay for estimating drug fungicidal activity ex vivo. The method is very simple, generates results within 5 h, and could prove useful for monitoring therapy with this effective but toxic drug.

Amphotericin B↗
PubMed2005

Potential fungicidal effect of voriconazole against Candida spp.

In vitro fungistatic and fungicidal activities of voriconazole were evaluated against 114 isolates of Candida spp. MICs were determined using the NCCLS M27-A2 broth microdilution method. Minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) were defined as the lowest drug concentrations that yielded < or = 5 colonies (> or = 98% killing activity). The fungicidal activity could be only evaluated against 45.6% of the isolates (52 of 114 isolates) because trailing growth occurred, and 30 of these 52 isolates (57.69%) showed MFC values < or = 1 mg/l. There was little or no fungicidal activity against C. albicans and C. tropicalis. In contrast, all C. krusei were killed by 1-2 mg/l voriconazole. In conclusion, our data show that the fungicidal effect of voriconazole against Candida spp. is species dependent.

Antifungal Agents↗
PubMed2003

Effect of cytokines on the in vitro fungicidal activity of monocytes from paracoccidioidomycosis patients.

Peripheral blood monocytes obtained from paracoccidioidomycosis patients and healthy individuals were preactivated with recombinant gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) in different concentrations (250, 500 and 1000 U/ml) and evaluated for fungicidal activity against Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis strain 18 (Pb 18, high-virulence strain) and strain 265 (Pb 265, low-virulence strain) by plating of cocultures and counting of colony-forming units, after 10 d. Monocytes from healthy individuals failed to present fungicidal activity against P. brasiliensis even after IFN-gamma activation at the three concentrations. However, patient monocytes activated with IFN-gamma (1000 U/ml) showed a significant fungicidal activity when compared to that obtained with non-activated or activated cells with other IFN-gamma concentrations (250 and 500 U/ml). Moreover, patient monocytes presented higher fungicidal activity than the control, even before the activation process. These results may be explained by the activation state of patients' cells as a function of the in vivo contact with the fungus, which was confirmed by their higher capacity to release H(2)O(2) in vitro. Unlike the results obtained with Pb 18, patient and control cells presented a significant fungicidal activity against Pb 265, after priming with IFN- gamma. These results are explained by the higher levels of TNF-alpha in supernatants of cultures challenged with Pb 265. Moreover, higher levels of the cytokine were obtained in patient cell supernatants. Taken together, our results suggest that for effective killing of P. brasiliensis by monocytes, an initial activation signal induced by IFN-gamma is necessary to stimulate the cells to produce TNF-alpha. This cytokine may be involved, through an autocrine pathway, in the final phase activation process. The effectiveness of this process seems to depend on the virulence of the fungal strain and the activation state of the challenged cells.

Cells, Cultured↗
PubMed2003

Fungicidal and anti-aflatoxigenic effects of the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. (lemongrass) against Aspergillus flavus Link. isolated from stored rice.

AIMS: To develop a natural fungicide against aflatoxigenic fungi, to protect stored rice, using the essential oil of lemongrass. METHODS AND RESULTS: Aspergillus flavus Link. was isolated from stored rice and identified as an aflatoxigenic strain. Lemongrass oil was tested against A. flavus and the test oil was fungistatic and fungicidal against the test pathogen at 0.6 and 1.0 mg ml(-1), respectively. Aflatoxin production was completely inhibited at 0.1 mg ml(-1). The results obtained from the thin layer chromatographic bioassay and gas chromatography indicated citral a and b as the fungicidal constituents in lemongrass oil. During the fumigant toxicity assay of lemongrass oil, the sporulation and the mycelial growth of the test pathogen were inhibited at the concentrations of 2.80 and 3.46 mg ml(-1), respectively. CONCLUSION: Lemongrass oil could be used to manage aflatoxin formation and fungal growth of A. flavus in stored rice. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Currently, fungicides are not used to control fungal pests or mycotoxin production on stored rice. Rice treated with the essential oil of lemongrass could be used to manage fungal pests as well as the insect pests in stored rice. The essential oil is chemically safe and acceptable to consumers, as synthetic chemical fungicides can cause adverse health effects to consumers.

Aflatoxins↗
PubMed1988

Evaluation of fungicidal action in vitro and in a skin model considering the influence of penetration kinetics of various standard antimycotics.

Ciclopiroxolamine (Loprox) was the first representative of hydroxpyridones to be developed as a topical antifungal. In the microtitration test and in a skin model using excised skin prices of slaughtered pigs, the fungistatic and fungicidal activity as well as the penetration kinetics of ciclopiroxolamine and ciclopirox were compared with those of the azole compounds bifonazole, clotrimazole, econazole, miconazole, oxiconazole, and tioconazole, and with other antimycotics such as naftifine, sulbentine, tolciclate, and tolnaftate. Clotrimazole had an in vitro inhibitory activity superior to that of the hydroxypyridone ciclopiroxolamine; the latter compound, however, exhibited faster penetration and higher inhibitory or fungicidal activity than the azoles and other antimycotics in the pig skin model. Studies of cream formulations with antimycotics at the bottom layer of the stratum corneum (close to the stratum granulosum) showed that ciclopiroxolamine cream had the most prominent inhibitory effect (93%) and the highest fungicidal activity (98%). The other antimycotics tested exhibited growth inhibition rates of 50% or less and lower fungicidal rates. Inoculated pig skin was treated with lacquer formulations to show that ciclopirox completely inhibited the growth of Trichophyton mentagrophytes, whereas the clotrimazole-treated samples allowed only 0.47% growth. The fungicidal activity of lacquer formulations was 99% for ciclopirox and around 90% for most of the azoles on the pig skin model. The necessity of models tackling the complex penetration kinetics in human skin was discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Thrombin-induced rabbit platelet microbicidal protein is fungicidal in vitro.

Platelet microbicidal protein (PMP) is released from platelets in response to thrombin stimulation. PMP is known to possess in vitro bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus and viridans group streptococci. To determine whether PMP is active against other intravascular pathogens, we evaluated its potential fungicidal activity against strains of Candida species and Cryptococcus neoformans. Anionic resin adsorption and gel electrophoresis confirmed that the fungicidal activity of PMP resided in a small (approximately 8.5-kDa), cationic protein, identical to previous studies of PMP-induced bacterial killing (M.R. Yeaman, S.M. Puentes, D.C. Norman, and A.S. Bayer, Infect. Immun. 60:1202-1209, 1992). When assayed over a 180-min period in vitro, the susceptibilities of these fungi to PMP varied considerably. Generally, Candida albicans strains (mean survival, 33.5% +/- 6.9% [n = 6]) as well as isolates of Candida glabrata (mean survival, 50.8% +/- 2.9% [n = 2]) were the most susceptible to killing by PMP, while Candida guillermondii and Candida parapsilosis were relatively resistant to PMP-induced killing. Compared with C. albicans, C. neoformans was relatively resistant to the fungicidal activity of PMP, with a mean survival among the isolates studied of 77.4% +/- 12.4% (n = 6). Against C. albicans, PMP-induced fungicidal activity was time dependent (range, 0 to 180 min), PMP concentration dependent (range, 10 to 150 U/ml), and inversely related to the fungal inoculum (range, 5 x 10(3) to 1 x 10(5) CFU/ml). Scanning electron microscopy of PMP-exposed C. albicans and C. neoformans cells revealed extensive surface damage and collapse, suggesting that the site of PMP fungicidal action may directly or indirectly involve the fungal cell envelope.

Amphotericin B↗
PubMed2004

Fungicidal activity of fluconazole against Candida albicans in a synthetic vagina-simulative medium.

Fluconazole (FLZ) has emerged as a highly successful agent in the management of systemic infections of Candida. Cure rates for symptomatic candidiasis following single 150-mg FLZ dose therapy exceed 90%. In vitro, however, FLZ is fungistatic only in a narrow pH range and is not effective at vaginal pH, 4.2. This study evaluated the effect of FLZ on Candida albicans under in vitro conditions resembling the vaginal microenvironment, using vagina-simulative medium (VS). We found that FLZ was fungicidal for C. albicans in VS, but not in other media at the same pH, 4.2. In VS, FLZ was fungicidal at concentrations of >/=8 micro g/ml and reduced viability by greater than 99.9%. Analysis of the components of VS indicated that 17 mM acetic acid, a concentration achieved in the vagina, was responsible for the synergistic, fungicidal effect. This effect was not seen at neutral pH. Other substrates were not effective substitutes for acetic acid; however, short-chained carboxylic acids, glyoxylate and malonate, were effective. Most strains of C. albicans that were resistant to FLZ under standard conditions were killed by FLZ plus acetate. Other species of Candida were also killed, except C. krusei and C. glabrata. This study shows that FLZ has fungicidal activity for Candida species under in vitro conditions that mimic the vaginal microenvironment. This raises the possibility that FLZ may also have fungicidal effects during treatment of vaginal candidiasis. Elucidating the mechanism by which FLZ and acetate interact may disclose vulnerable pathways that could be exploited in drug development.

Acetic Acid↗