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Foot and mouth disease (FMD) affects cloven-footed animals. It is caused by seven species ("types") of Foot and Mouth virus (FMDV) in the genus aphthovirus, family Picornaviridae (). FMDV is a single-stranded RNA virus, with a protein coat consisting of four capsid proteins enumerated as VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4 (Garland and Donaldson 1990).
Foot and mouth disease is a frequent viral zoonosis in livestock that may occasionally also affect humans. Transmission to man usually occurs as a result of the consumption of unprocessed milk. The clinical manifestations include fever, headache, weakness, muscle pain, and the development of vesicles and ulcers throughout the oral mucosa. Vesicular stomatitis is another zoonosis similar to foot and mouth disease that can likewise affect humans with similar clinical manifestations, in which the presence of aphthae is highly suggestive. In turn, hand, foot and mouth disease and herpangina are two exclusively human diseases caused by different enteroviruses, with a special predilection for children under five years of age, and characterized by the presence of vesicles and ulcerations in the oral cavity. The present study provides a brief review of the salient characteristics of foot and mouth disease and of other similar viral diseases with which the differential diagnosis should be established.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) has devastated animal husbandry in The Netherlands frequently in the past and still constitutes a threat. The use of vaccination reduced the number of outbreaks in The Netherlands in the 20th Century. However, the desire of some member states of the European Community not to use vaccination led to a new strategy based on stamping-out of infected and contagious farms and to strict transportation regulations. In 2001, this proved very disruptive to the wider rural economy, such as the recreational and tourism sectors. The policy also caused severe animal welfare problems and psychological problems among farmers and their families. This raised questions about the wider, and not only veterinary or agricultural, implications of control strategies of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV). The technology seems to be in place for a return to the use of protective vaccination against FMDV during an outbreak, provided the Office International des Epizooties (OIE: World organisation for animal health) and European Commission (EC) receive data that substantiate the reliability of differentiating tests such as the 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for use in individual animals. Research is in progress but may not be able to produce these data until 2003 or 2004. High potency vaccines should be used to elicit sufficient immunity within three to four days. During an FMD crisis, farmers should be assisted to find markets for products from areas affected by FMDV. The human dimension of any FMD outbreak must be dealt with sufficiently in any contingency plan.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the major disease barrier to international trade in animals and animal products. Countries free of the disease take severe measures to exclude the virus, to avoid the potentially devastating consequences of an outbreak, particularly for the animal export trade. Consequently, FMD-free countries either refuse to trade with sporadically or endemically infected countries, or else apply stringent and often expensive safeguards before agreeing to import animals or animal products. Technological advances can assist countries which are free of FMD to maintain this status. Such advances also aid countries in which the disease is sporadic or endemic, by accelerating the progress of control and eradication programmes. The authors review recent advances in tests for the diagnosis of FMD, in addition to advances in surveillance, vaccinology and information technology, i.e. computing and networking. Furthermore, the authors examine the application of these advances to improve programmes for the control and eradication of FMD, and identify the requirements for further research into the disease.
Foot and mouth disease is still prevalent in many parts of the world, as emphasised by the recent devastating epidemic in pig farms in Taiwan. A discrete time mechanistic model has been used to describe the spread of infection in both this epidemic and the 1967 to 1968 epidemic in the UK. The force of infection and basic reproduction number are estimated and the sensitivity of these results to the distributions of both the latent and infectious periods of the disease is examined. Epidemic simulations were performed to evaluate the disease control policy whereby all herds are slaughtered on the same day as disease confirmation. These simulations showed that implementing this policy could have resulted in a dramatic reduction (of over 60 per cent) in the number of pig farms affected in the Taiwan epidemic. It is thus imperative that the necessary resources are available to implement this policy, should an outbreak occur.
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Diabetes mellitus affects all parts of the body, and all aspects of life for the patient. To manage patients effectively, we need a record of who has diabetes, where they are treated, by whom, and with what results. In 1985 we devised a standardised data collection form in our clinic and in 1987 we established a comprehensive register of patients treated in our clinics. Our Diabetes Care Centre serves a population of 287,460 based in an industrial area with high levels of social and economic deprivation. The database includes demographic details, risk factors including smoking and alcohol intake, duration of diabetes, type of treatment, biochemical results including blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin, details of blood lipids and renal function. We also record details of diabetic eye disease, foot disease, nerve pathway disease, cardiovascular disease, and skin complications. We record the type of treatment including diet, tablets, and insulin and we audit the incidence of diabetic complications including ketoacidosis, amputation, and blindness due to diabetes. From 1994 onwards we complied a district register of patients including those not seen by us. Our computerised database enables us to monitor our clinics, audit our results, pursue research, set targets, and facilitates contracting for diabetes care with our purchasers.
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The atmospheric dispersion of virus was simulated using a computer model which had been developed for predicting the dispersion of toxic gases from chemical engineering plants. The results were compared with data from four outbreaks in which virus was believed to have been transported by air: two outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom in 1967 and outbreaks of Aujeszky's disease in Yorkshire in 1981 to 1982 and Indiana in 1988. There was relatively good agreement with most of these data. The paper shows that the model could be useful in an emergency because the risk of virus spread could be predicted in real time.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle is usually clinically obvious in the unvaccinated herds of countries in which the disease occurs only occasionally. However, in vaccinated herds and in some breeds indigenous to areas in which FMD is endemic, the disease may circulate undetected.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. The disease was initially described in the 16th century and was the first animal pathogen identified as a virus. Recent FMD outbreaks in developed countries and their significant economic impact have increased the concern of governments worldwide. This review describes the reemergence of FMD in developed countries that had been disease free for many years and the effect that this has had on disease control strategies. The etiologic agent, FMD virus (FMDV), a member of the Picornaviridae family, is examined in detail at the genetic, structural, and biochemical levels and in terms of its antigenic diversity. The virus replication cycle, including virus-receptor interactions as well as unique aspects of virus translation and shutoff of host macromolecular synthesis, is discussed. This information has been the basis for the development of improved protocols to rapidly identify disease outbreaks, to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals, and to begin to identify and test novel vaccine candidates. Furthermore, this knowledge, coupled with the ability to manipulate FMDV genomes at the molecular level, has provided the framework for examination of disease pathogenesis and the development of a more complete understanding of the virus and host factors involved.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is caused by an RNA virus of the genus Aphthovirus; 7 immunologically distinct serotypes of the virus have been identified. Susceptible species are mainly domestic and wild even-toed ungulates, such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, bison, and deer. All body fluids of infected animals can contain the virus and are considered infective. The primary mode of transmission is animal-to-animal transmission through inhalation or ingestion of aerosols containing the virus. The virus can also be spread mechanically by contaminated organic debris and fomites and can survive for 48 hours on human oral and nasal mucosa and be spread to uninfected animals in this manner. There is a rapid progression of clinical signs after an animal becomes infected, and the virus spreads rapidly throughout a herd. Clinical signs include excessive salivation; fever; vesicles and erosions of the oral and nasal mucosa, coronary band, interdigital area, and teats; lameness; sloughing of claws; reluctance to move; anorexia; mastitis; decreased milk production; and abortion or weak newborns. In mature animals, FMD has high morbidity and low mortality rates. Infected animals can become inapparent carriers of the virus.
Foot and mouth disease is a highly contagious acute viral disease that affects most ruminant and porcine species. During 2001, 33 serum samples were collected from Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa) in the Eastern Steppe of Mongolia. Samples were tested for antibodies to seven subtypes of foot-and-mouth-disease virus (FMDV). Antibodies were detected in 67% of the animals, and serologic results indicated exposure to FMDV-O. This virus was present in domestic animal populations in Mongolia from 2000 to 2002, and it is likely that the antibodies to FMDV detected in these gazelles resulted from spillover of virus from domestic animal sources.
Hand, foot, and mouth disease, also known as vesicular stomatitis with exanthem, is a vesicular disorder affecting both skin and oral mucosa. The disease is usually caused by Coxsackie virus A-16 and affects mainly children. The oral lesions may require differential diagnosis from other conditions, such as herpetic gingivostomatitis, aphthous stomatitis, and herpangina. Hand, foot, and mouth disease should not be confused with foot-and-mouth disease of cattle, which is rare in human beings and is not caused by Coxsackie virus.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) diagnostic methods are reviewed. As the presence of clinical signs alone is inconclusive, laboratory diagnosis should always be carried out. The presence of FMD virus can be demonstrated by cell culture isolation, complement fixation test, ELISA or the more recent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Serological diagnosis is also a valuable tool. The virus neutralization test has been replaced by ELISA and the antibody response to some viral non-structural proteins allows to discriminate between vaccinated and infected animals on a herd basis. More rapid and accurate tests as well as an earlier detection system in preclinical state are still needed.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) was the first animal virus to be identified. Since then, it has become a model system in animal virology and more information has been obtained about FMDV. The disease causes heavy economic crises in enzootic countries both due to loss of animal health and productivity. The only way of its control in an enzootic area is strict vaccination and restricted animal movement. The first experimental vaccine against FMD was made in 1925 using formaldehyde inactivation of cattle tongue infected with the virus and this approach remained the basic one until late 1940s. Antigenic plurality and continuous co-circulation of different serotypes in a given geographical region and persistence of virus in infected or vaccinated animals make the disease very difficult to control. The latter is solely based upon the application of isolation, slaughter or aphtisation, and vaccination. With the advent of recombinant DNA technology, recombinant protein and/or DNA-based vaccines are being tested in various heterologous systems for development of FMD vaccines. The subunit vaccines, synthetic peptide vaccines, DNA vaccines, cytokine-enhanced DNA vaccines, recombinant empty capsid vaccines, chimeric viral vaccines, genetically engineered attenuated vaccines, recombinant viral vector vaccines, self-replicating genetic vaccines and transgenic plants with expressed FMDV proteins represent the present vaccine development strategies for control of FMD.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically significant disease of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and wild ruminant species. The FMD virus genome encodes a unique polyprotein from which the different viral polypeptides are cleaved by viral proteases, including eight different non-structural proteins (NSPs). Both structural and non-structural antigens induce the production of antibodies in infected animals. In contrast, vaccinated animals which have not been exposed to replicating virus will develop antibodies only to the viral antigens in the inactivated material. Vaccination against FMD is a key element in the control of the disease in addition to slaughter and movement restrictions. However, countries that vaccinate in the event of an outbreak will have to re-establish their FMD free status to the satisfaction of their trading partners. Because currently available vaccines stimulate the production of antibodies indistinguishable from those produced by infected animals in response to live virus and because vaccinated animals can be infected and become carriers of FMD virus, efforts have been made to develop diagnostic test that can differentiate vaccinated animals from those that are convalescent and from those that have been vaccinated and become carriers following subsequent contact with live virus. Currently the detection of antibodies to non-structural protein's (NSPs) is the preferred diagnostic method to distinguish virus infected, carrier, animals from vaccinated animals. However this is currently only possible at the herd level because of the great variability in the initiation, specificity and duration of the immune response in individual animals to the NSPs shown in many studies. Considerable effort and attention is now being directed toward the development of new methods and techniques for the rapid and accurate detection of anti-NSP antibodies, harmonization and standardization of current diagnostic techniques, as well as the production of defined reagents.