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PubMed1999

Proprioceptive control of multijoint movement: unimanual circle drawing.

The present experiments addressed whether proprioception is used by the central nervous system (CNS) to control the spatial and temporal characteristics of unimanual circle drawing. Circle drawing is a multijoint movement, in which the muscles crossing the elbow and the shoulder are sequentially activated. The spatial and temporal characteristics of circle drawing depend on the precise coordination of these sequential activation patterns, and proprioception is ideally suited to support this coordination. Blindfolded human subjects produced a counterclockwise circular drawing motion (diameter = 16 cm) with the dominant arm at a repetition rate of 1/s. In some trials, 60-70 Hz vibration was applied to the tendons of the biceps brachii and/or the anterior deltoid. Spatial parameters measured from hand-movement data included the x- and y-axis diameters, circularity, and drift of the hand in the workspace. Vibration of either the biceps brachii or the anterior deltoid caused subjects to draw circles with decreased diameter, with changes in circularity, and with a systematic drift of the hand. These distortions to circle drawing by tendon vibration demonstrate that the CNS uses proprioceptive information to accomplish the spatial characteristics of this motor task. Simultaneous vibration of both muscles produced a drift that exceeded the individual vibration effects, which suggests that the CNS combined proprioceptive information related to elbow and shoulder rotation to control the movement of the hand. The temporal characteristics of circle drawing were quantified from joint angle data. While vibration did not significantly influence the relative phase between elbow and shoulder rotation, the variability of the phase relationship increased significantly, which suggests that proprioception contributes to phase stabilization. During circle drawing, elbow flexion-extension movements were produced with limited activation of the biceps. Nevertheless, biceps vibration distorted the circle metrics, suggesting that a muscle's significance as a sensory transducer is independent of its activity level.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Nonorganic pain drawings are associated with low psychological scores on the preoperative SF-36 questionnaire in patients with chronic low back pain.

The Short Form 36 questionnaire (SF-36) measures general health and well-being. Within the last 5 years it has been used increasingly to characterise patients in the medical literature. Relatively few studies have used the SF-36 on patients with chronic low back pain undergoing preoperative evaluation, but results suggest that it may be predictive of surgical outcome. Pain drawings are a routine part of evaluation prior to spinal surgery in several centres, since their classification of organic or nonorganic has been shown in some studies to correlate well with psychological characteristics predicting poor outcome. The purpose of the present study was to assess possible correlations between nonorganic pain drawings and the psychological scales in the SF-36. We included 128 patients in the study, all of them referred from other hospitals. Previous spinal surgery had been undergone by 25%, and 59% required daily medication because of low back pain. All patients completed pain drawings using predefined symbols These pain drawings were scored dichotomously as organic or nonorganic based on a brief description of a typical nonorganic characteristics. Patients also completed the Danish version of the SF-36 questionnaire. Statistical analysis was performed using logistic regression analysis. The pain drawing classification was used as the dependent variable and scores on the eight scales of the SF-36 as independent variables. P values of <0.05 were considered significant. The mean scores of the patient population on all eight scales were significantly lower than Danish norms. The only scales that correlated with the presence of nonorganic pain drawings were emotional role (RE) and mental health (MH), both measuring psychological health. The odds ratio (OR) of receiving a nonorganic pain drawing was 22 (95% confidence interval, or CI, 7-65) if the scores on RE and MH were more than 2 standard deviations (SD) below the Danish norm. This is the first study providing evidence that pain drawing ratings are influenced by the psychological scales of the SF-36. The clinical relevance of this observation regarding prediction of outcome after spinal surgery should be assessed in future studies.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

The drawing of objects by a visual form agnosic: contribution of surface properties and memorial representations.

Although edge-based representations of objects are thought to play a central role in object identification, it is clear that real objects convey more information about their form than line drawings. Patients with visual form agnosia, for example, are able to identify real objects more easily than the corresponding line drawings of those objects, even if exactly the same projection planes are used [Goodale et al. Object versus picture identification in a patient with visual form agnosia. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (April, 1991). Sarasota, FL, 1991]. To compare these two modes of representation in another way, we asked a patient (D.F.) with profound visual form agnosia to make line drawings of a series of common objects, either from long-term memory, from the real objects themselves, or from line drawings of those objects. When four independent judges rated the drawings as to how well they represented the target objects, drawings from memory received higher ratings than drawings of real objects which in turn received higher ratings than those based on line drawings. These results complement those of Goodale et al. (1991) and suggest that cues derived from surface properties and depth can assist in the demarcation of the critical features necessary for the accurate portrayal of objects. They also suggest that despite D.F.'s perceptual deficits, her long-term representation of objects is relatively intact.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Why can't most people draw what they see?

The study presented a theoretical and empirical approach to the adult drawing process. Four possible sources of drawing inaccuracies were described: misperception of the object, inability to make good representational decisions, deficient motor skills, and misperception of the drawing. In four studies the degree to which the latter three sources contributed to drawing inaccuracies was assessed. The results suggest that (a) motor coordination is a very minimal source of drawing inaccuracies, (b) the artist's decision-making process is a relatively minor source of drawing inaccuracies, and (c) the artist's misperception of his or her work is not a source of drawing inaccuracies. These results suggest that the artist's misperception of the object is the major source of drawing errors.

Art↗
PubMed1982

Predicting the perception of three-dimensional objects from the geometrical information in drawings.

Three experiments investigated the hypothesis that perceived dimensionality of drawings of an object increases with the complexity of the drawings. Experiment 1 examined drawings of transparent objects. The results strongly supported this hypothesis: Judgments of each object tested increased approximately as step functions of complexity. In addition, the complexity at which the step occurred increased with the complexity of the object. Similar results were obtained in Experiment 2, which investigated drawings of solid objects. These experiments also provided support for a measure of complexity that includes a measure of how much is in the drawing as well as how organized the drawing is. In Experiment 2, there were some judgments that did not fit the hypothesis. Experiment 3 investigated the possibility that the deviant judgments were produced by alternate three-dimensional interpretations of the drawings. Results indicated that 12% of the drawings had multiple three-dimensional interpretations, but this did not explain the deviant judgments. Several methods of expanding the complexity hypothesis to handle the multiple interpretations and the deviant judgments are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Emergence of drawing devices for total and partial occlusion: a longitudinal study.

The developmental emergence of two drawing devices was investigated in young children: the use of omission (ie not drawing any of a hidden object) to depict total occlusion and the use of hidden line elimination (HLE, ie deleting only that part of an object that is hidden from view) to depict partial occlusion in a three-dimensional scene. Three groups of school children (5, 6, and 7 years old) were tested individually with two tasks four times over a 2-year period. One task called for the omission device (to draw a cup with its handle not in view) and the other for the HLE device (to draw one ball behind and partially occluded by another). The stimuli in each task were presented in pairs, with one member of the pair showing the occluded scene and the other a canonical or not-occluded scene. Changes in the strategies used by the children to indicate the visual differences within the pairs were recorded over the four testing sessions. Children were found to use the omission device more readily with the cup task than the HLE device with the ball task. There was an age-related trend in every task in the use of the drawing device appropriate to that task. For those who did not use the drawing device appropriate for a perspective drawing, there was a tendency for each age group to favour a particular strategy for representation. The advantage of using a longitudinal design to chart the developmental trend of the emergence of these two drawing devices is discussed.

Art↗
PubMed1996

Management of blood-drawing fears in adolescents with comorbid anxiety and depressive disorders.

As more pharmacologic treatment and research on child and adolescent psychiatric patients are conducted, the common problem of blood-drawing fears will need to be addressed. Avoidance of blood-drawing could jeopardize an individual's physical and mental health, and inhibit the collection of data aimed at furthering the study of psychiatric disorders in youth. This report describes the naturalistic application of specific techniques for managing severe blood-drawing fears in adolescent subjects undergoing a clinical trial. The adolescents (ages 12-18) were 44 consecutive school refusers with comorbid anxiety and major depressive disorders. Of the school-refusing adolescents, 27% (12 of 44) were observed to have a severe fear of blood-drawing. A management strategy comprised of providing information, distraction, supportive reassurance, and exposure appeared successful in managing the fears of blood-drawing in all of the adolescents, except two. These 2 adolescents refused to enter the treatment study due to a marked fear of blood-drawing. All 10 subjects who exhibited a fear of blood-drawing and were able to complete the initial blood test, using the interventions noted, were able to obtain subsequent venipunctures with minimal or no avoidance behavior. These preliminary findings suggest that blood-drawing fears can be effectively managed in most cases, though controlled studies of these interventions are needed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

An MRI investigation into the function of the transversus abdominis muscle during "drawing-in" of the abdominal wall.

STUDY DESIGN: An operator blinded dual modality trial of measurement of the abdominal muscles during "drawing-in" of the abdominal wall. OBJECTIVES: 1) To investigate, using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the function of the transversus abdominis muscle bilaterally during a drawing-in of the abdominal wall. 2) To validate the use of real-time ultrasound imaging as a measure of the deep abdominal muscle during a drawing-in of the abdominal wall. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Previous research has implicated the deep abdominal muscle, transversus abdominis, in the support and protection of the spine and provided evidence that training this muscle is important in the rehabilitation of low back pain. One of the most important actions of the transversus abdominis is to "draw-in" the abdominal wall, and this action has been shown to stiffen the sacroiliac joints. It is hypothesized that in response to a draw in, the transversus abdominis muscle forms a deep musculofascial "corset" and that MRI could be used to view this corset and verify its mechanism of action on the lumbopelvic region. METHODS: Thirteen healthy asymptomatic male elite cricket players aged 21.3 +/- 2.1 years were imaged using MRI and ultrasound imaging as they drew in their abdominal walls. Measurements of the thickness of the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles and the slide of the anterior abdominal fascia were measured using both MRI and ultrasound. Measurement of the whole abdominal cross-sectional area (CSA) was conducted using MRI. RESULTS: Results of the MRI demonstrated that, as a result of draw-in, there was a significant increase in thickness of the transversus abdominis (P < 0.001) and the internal oblique muscles (P < 0.001). There was a significant decrease in the CSA of the trunk (P < 0.001). The mean slide (+/-SD) of the anterior abdominal fascia was 1.54 +/- 0.38 cm for the left side and 1.48 +/- 0.35 cm for the right side. Ultrasound measurements of muscle thickness of both transversus abdominis and the internal oblique, as well as fascial slide, correlated with measures obtained using MRI (interclass correlations from 0.78 to 0.95). CONCLUSIONS: The MRI results demonstrated that during a drawing-in action, the transversus abdominis contracts bilaterally to form a musculofascial band that appears to tighten (like a corset) and most likely improves the stabilization of the lumbopelvic region. Real-time ultrasound imaging can also be used to measure changes in the transversus abdominis during the draw-in maneuver.

Abdominal Muscles↗
PubMed1998

Clock drawing test in very mild Alzheimer's disease.

OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of the clock drawing test to predict the presence of very mild Alzheimer's disease (AD). A secondary objective was to identify elements of clock drawing that were most useful in differentiating cognitively intact older adults from those with mild Alzheimer's disease. DESIGN: Cohort based comparison of retrospective data. SETTING: Academic research center. PARTICIPANTS: Clock drawings from 41 outpatient cases of mild AD with Mini-Mental State Exam scores of 24 or higher and 39 age- and education-matched older adults were scored. MEASUREMENTS: Clock drawings were blindly and independently scored by two raters using the Clock Drawing Interpretation Scale and the scoring system reported by Rouleau et al. Predictive values for positive and negative tests were calculated using cut-off scores for total score and component subscores from each of these two systems. RESULTS: Two or more errors in the depiction of the clock hands on the Clock Drawing Interpretation Scale had a positive predictive value for AD of 100% and a negative predictive value of 51%. A score of 2 or less on the 4-point hand-placement component of the Rouleau et al. scoring system provided a positive predictive value for AD of 94% and was associated with a negative predictive value of 62%. CONCLUSION: An individual who commits two errors or more in drawing the clock hands deserves further investigation for a possible dementia. Normal hand placement on the clock drawing test does not exclude AD. However, when prevalence rates of dementia in community-dwelling older adults are considered, these results argue that normal clock hand placement indicates that dementia is unlikely.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Influence of draw reins on ground reaction forces at the trot.

According to riding texts, draw reins are supposed to support increased collection. This has not been measured objectively. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether a horse ridden with draw reins would relatively increase weightbearing of the hindquarters while worked with the draw reins compared to a normal rein. Ground reaction forces were measured in 8 horses at the slow trot over a force plate in 3 different experimental set-ups: 1) riding with only a draw rein (DR); 2) riding with the combination of a normal and a draw rein (NR-DR) and 3) riding with a normal rein (NR). Horses ridden with NR-DR showed significant higher vertical impulse in the hindlimb compared to riding both with only DR and only NR. Several significant differences were also seen in the horizontal force. It is concluded that draw reins, when used correctly, together with a normal rein, achieve the desired result of shifting the weight of the horse caudally. This was not the case when the draw rein was used alone. It is important that trainers, as well as veterinarians, recommending draw reins in a rehabilitation programme, know about these possible effects.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2005

Cube drawing performances in normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease: data from the PAQUID elderly population-based cohort.

To assess the influence of age and other sociodemographical variables, depressive symptomatology and the occurrence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) on cube drawing, we examined the performance of 858 normal subjects and 17 incident AD patients in the PAQUID population-based study. Cube drawing was first performed on verbal command and, in case of failure, a model of a cube was given to the subjects to copy. Normal subjects had some difficulties in drawing a cube on verbal command, evidenced by 40% failure in the drawing-to-command condition, while only 17% still failed in the drawing-to-copy condition. Multivariate logistic regressions showed that age, gender, and educational level were associated with cube drawing failure in both conditions, but depressive symptomatology was only associated with persistent failure in the drawing-to-copy condition. Seventy-six point five percent of incident AD subjects failed in the drawing-to-command condition and 64.7% did not benefit from the presentation of the model. Analysis showed that persistent failure in the copy condition was the best level of differentiation between normal and AD subjects.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1990

Youthful ideas about old age: an analysis of children's drawings.

Youthful ideas about old age are investigated by means of an analysis of children's drawings of young and old people. The age of the artists ranged between ten and a half years and eleven and a half years of age, and each artist drew four pictures (a young woman, an old woman, a young man, and an old man). Analyses consisted of a content analysis of drawings; the calculation of standard scores by means of the Harris-Goodenough Draw-A-Person (DAP) test scoring procedure (in order to effect comparisons of scores within each child's corpus of drawings); and measurement of the height of each drawing. The content analysis suggested a greater degree of stereotyping in boys' pictures of young women and in girls' pictures of old men than in other drawings. Pictures of old people overall were no more stereotyped than were those of young people, though they were more negative in content. Results of the DAP standard score calculation comparisons found consistent differences between children's drawings of old and young people, with pictures of old people attaining lower standard scores than those of young people. Size measurements revealed pictures of old people to be significantly smaller than those of young people. Explanations for these differences are discussed and further investigations recommended involving a wider population of artists and focusing particularly on the size of drawings.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

An exploratory study of the draw-a-person as a measure of racial identity.

The race of the figure drawn on the Draw-A-Person Test is proposed as a measure of acceptance of racial identity. Reliability and validity of this measure were explored in a two-part study. Part 1 confirmed the hypothesis that the race of the figure drawn is related to the race of the child producing the drawing. Comparison of the figures drawn by black (n = 157) and white (n = 167) children confirmed three other hypotheses based on the voluminous literature suggesting that black children are less accepting of their racial group membership than whites. These hypotheses were: (a) whites should be more likely to draw figures that are clearly white than blacks are to draw figures that are clearly black, (b) whites should be less likely to draw blacks than blacks are to draw whites, and (c) blacks should be more likely to avoid giving clear indication of the race of the figures they draw than are whites. Inter-rater reliability for the race of the figure drawn was .79. Five weeks after the initial drawing, a subsample of 28 black children drew a second figure and performed a picture choice task designed to assess acceptance of racial identity. The race of the figure drawn showed a test-retest reliability of .53 and correlated significantly with the other measure of racial identity (r27 = .39).

Black or African American↗
PubMed2003

Planning and drawing of occluded objects by young children.

When children under 8 yr. old draw an object occluded by another, they depict each object separately either horizontally or vertically. This study examined whether children aged 4-6-yr.-old intended to draw occluding and occluded objects separately at the planning stage like their drawn product. 25 4-yr.-olds (boys=14, girls=11), 28 5-yr.-olds (boys=14, girls=14), and 29 6-yr.-olds (boys=19, girls=10) were presented two cups, set one behind another, with handles visible at the side in partial occlusion and invisible in total occlusion. They were asked to draw the cups as they saw them and to select one among five picture cards (circle, horizontal, orientation-centered, vertical, view-specific) that matched their drawing plan. Analysis showed in both partial and total occlusions in the drawing 4-yr.-olds more often drew either a circle or the two cups horizontally; 5-yr.-olds drew the two cups vertically, while 6-yr.-olds made view-specific drawings, that is, drew the cups as seen. On the planning task for partial and total occlusions 4-yr.-olds selected the picture card representing a circle or two horizontally drawn cups, 5-yr.-olds tended to pick the card of two vertically drawn cups, while 6-yr.-olds chose the view-specific picture card, like their drawn products. These results suggested that planning and drawing were similar within and across age groups and that children's drawing reflected the representation of their planning.

Child↗
PubMed2001

[A study of computer-aided drawing system for individualized ideal arches].

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to devise a computer aided drawing system for individualized ideal arches, to resolve the discommode of manual drawing of Bonwill-Hawley arch charts and and to avoid the non-matching problem when using the universal arch charts. METHODS: On the basis of drawing principle of Bonwill-Hawley individualized ideal arches, the computer program was written with Visual Basic version 6.0. RESULTS: The new computer-aided drawing system of individualized ideal arches was based on Windows9X/NT. After the data of mesiodistal diameters of maxillary anterior teeth crown (from mesial surface to distal surface of bracket for canine) were input, a matching individualized ideal arch chart would be drawing using the designed program immediately. CONCLUSION: The computer-aided drawing system of individualized ideal arch can help to draw a matching individualized ideal arch accurately and quickly. This system eliminates the complex and cockamamie process of manual drawing.

Computer Graphics↗
PubMed1992

Drawing development: from similarity of features to direction.

Children often are said to pass through a series of stages in learning to represent 3-dimensional objects, such as cubes, on a 2-dimensional picture surface. Drawings of cubes from 1,734 children and adults were collected. They were classified into 10 drawing types (5 distinguished by Willats, and some additional types, one taken from Caron-Pargue). Over 80% of 5-year-olds produced a single square to represent a cube. Also, over 80% of 14- and 15-year-olds and over 80% of adults produced a parallel-projection drawing. However, there are several routes between these two milestones of drawing development, since no other drawing type captured more than 23% of the drawings at any age between 6 and 13. It is instructive that some children produced drawings that never were made by any of the adults, while some adults produced drawings of cubes that young children did not. We suggest that these differences between children and adults show that the younger children use a similarity geometry with "feature-based" criteria, while the older children and adults use a vantage-point geometry that includes "direction-based" criteria.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

[Writing and drawing impairment in patients with brain damage of various etiologies].

The evolutional relationship between writing and drawing functions, and partial overlapping their brain centers stimulated to investigate of writing and drawing errors of brain damaged patients. THE PURPOSE: of the work was elaboration of estimation criteria of writing and drawing errors of the patients, and indication of important likeness and differences between them. THE MATERIAL AND METHODS: 40 patients with brain damage of various etiology was examined by means of the writing/drawing scale consisted of 14 tasks. The quantitative and qualitative errors investigation was performed. RESULTS: The significant writing errors committed 17 persons, drawing errors--25 persons. 14 errors types were referred to writing, 15 to drawing, and 6 to writing and drawing together. The correlation between quantitative estimations of errors was moderate, and between qualitative estimations of errors was high. CONCLUSIONS: The significant writing errors committed 42.5% patients, drawing errors--62.5% patients. The differences between writing and drawing manifested by dissimilarities of majority of errors, the likeness--by 6 types common errors, and high correlation of results.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The Clock Test: drawing a clock for detection of cognitive disorders in geriatric patients].

Patients of a geriatric hospital (n = 263; 145 women, 118 men) had the task of drawing a clock and indicating a given time by the placements of hands. Errors were classified hierarchically by using a five-category-panel based on defined criteria. Its use as a "first-line" screening test for cognitive disorders in old age was evaluated. Retest- (r = 0.89) and interrater- correlations (r = 0.81) were satisfying. The results of this "clock drawing test" were compared both to the outcome in the Abbreviated Mental Test (AMT) and to the general judgment of the patients' cognitive status, based on the history, the report of informants, on clinical observation and examination. Patients with faultless clock drawings performed well in the AMT. However, prediction of the outcome in the AMT gradually became impossible with poorer performance in the clock drawing test, resulting in a low specificity (0.74) for a normal AMT. Specificity of the clock drawing test increased (0.79) for the general judgment of cognitive disorder, with sensitivity remaining constant (0.84). Sudden onset of cognitive disorder (most commonly confusion) in case of acute disease was discovered by the clock drawing test. Focusing on all patients without apparent cognitive disorder and with normal AMT-result, the subgroup of patients with faultless clock drawings was significantly younger (t = 5.0); p < 0.001). It is suggested to use the clock drawing test in addition to conventional psychometric screening tests because it requires visuospatial skills and conceptual thinking in addition to mere mnestic and verbal qualities.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aged↗