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PubMed1984

The suppression of crying in the human neonate: response to human vocal tract stimuli.

Amounts of crying were measured for two groups of infants in two states, calm and crying. The stimulus group was exposed to two test-cry stimuli (own-cry/other-cry) in both states. The control group was not exposed to the test-cry stimuli. For the stimulus group, results showed that there was no significant difference in the amount of crying during presentation of either the own-cry or other-cry test stimulus. However, the stimulus group did cry significantly less than the control group. This difference in the amount of crying was attributed to the capacity of the infant to suppress crying in the presence of auditory stimuli.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2006

Acoustic quality of cry in very-low-birth-weight infants at the age of 1 1/2 years.

BACKGROUND: Infant cry characteristics reflect the integrity of the central nervous system. Previous studies have shown that preterm infants and infants with neurological conditions have different cry characteristics such as fundamental frequency compared to healthy full-term infants. Cry characteristics of preterm infants after the first year of life have not been studied. AIMS: The aim of this study was to assess the quality of cry in 1 1/2-year-old very-low-birth-weight infants (VLBWI, < or =1500 g at birth). STUDY SUBJECTS AND DESIGN: Study groups included 21 VLBWI and 25 healthy full-term controls. Thirty seconds of pain cry after vaccination was recorded at well-baby clinics. The first cry utterance was acoustically analyzed using Praat software. The quality of cry was compared between the groups. In addition, the association of cry quality to patient characteristics, to developmental outcome, and to findings in brain imaging studies of the VLBWI was studied. RESULTS: The cry response was elicited in 20 of the 21 VLBWI and in 20 out of 25 full-term infants. VLBWI had higher minimum fundamental frequency and fourth formant values. Patient characteristics that were associated with cry quality were 5-min Apgar scores, the occurrence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, Bayley Psychomotor Index scores at 12 months, and current weight and head circumference. CONCLUSIONS: Differences found between the study groups were not explained primarily by brain pathology or by patient characteristics, so it seems that prematurity has an impact on cry quality still at the age of 1 1/2 years.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1981

Maternal learned helplessness and physiologic response to infant crying.

Maternal response to infant crying was studied by exposing mothers of young infants to varying degrees of control over the termination of infant crying. As adapted from the learned-helplessness paradigm, each mother was tested on an instrumental shuttle box task following exposure to one of three instrumental pretreatments: (a) escape-four button presses terminated the infant cry; (b) inescape-button press was unrelated to cry termination; and (c) control-mothers passively listened to the cry. Following pretreatment, each mother was given an instrumental shuttle box task consisting of a solvable task with an alternation response that controlled cry termination. Cardiac responses were monitored throughout the session. On the performance measures, mothers pretreated with inescapable infant crying showed debilitated performance on the second task. Failure to escape, number of trials to escape criterion and latency of response to the cry were all greater for the inescape group compared with escape and control mothers, with exception that inescapable and control mothers did not differ significantly on response latency scores. In addition, only mothers with prior experience controlling the cry showed cardiac deceleration, an index of attentional processing, during a 10-sec anticipatory period preceding the cry episode of the solvable instrumental task. These cardiac data provide suggestive evidence that the important behavioral differences may in part be attributable to differential processing of cues signaling the onset of crying.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1995

Acoustic correlates of inspiratory phonation during infant cry.

The duration and vocal fundamental frequency (Fo) of inspiratory cries produced by a group of 20 healthy infants were measured. Similar acoustic measures were applied to the cries immediately preceding and following an inspiratory cry as a means of characterizing an inspiratory "event." Results were that the number of inspiratory cries varied considerably from child to child during a complete crying episode. The duration and Fo of inspiratory cries were significantly shorter and higher, respectively, in comparison to cries immediately preceding and following the inspiratory cry. In addition, the gap duration following an inspiratory cry was significantly greater than the pre-inspiratory gap duration. Discussion centers on the anatomical and physiological bases of inspiratory cry phonation. Implications as well as the need to consider the inspiratory portion of crying behavior when examining infants at risk for respiratory distress also are discussed.

Crying↗
PubMed1980

Cry analysis of infants with karyotype abnormality.

Sound spectrography was used to analyze 135 pain cries from 14 infants with a karyotype abnormality. At the time of the cry recording the children were from one day to seven months old, except for one child who was 2 years 10 months at the second recording. The cries were compared with 30 pain cries from 15 healthy infants of corresponding age. The children with an abnormality of chromosome 4 or 5 had cries with a significantly higher fundamental frequency than the control infants. Additionally, the cry in the "Cri-du-Chat" syndrome had a flat, monotonous melody type. The cries of infants with 13- or 18-trisomy were hoarse, low-pitched, with the shift parts absent. The cries in karyotype abnormalities were also different from pain cries of infants with other disorders involving the central nervous system. This study suggests that cry analysis can provide a valuable indication of the presence of a chromosome anomaly.

Abnormalities, Multiple↗
PubMed2006

Neonatal behavioural profile and crying in premature infants at term age.

AIM: To analyse behavioural characteristics of infants who cried more versus those who cried less, in a sample of low-risk premature infants. METHODS: Participants were 63 low-risk healthy premature infants. At term age, the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) was administered, and a 1-d diary for crying was recorded starting on the following day. Infants were categorized into two groups: those with "high level of crying" (> or = 75th percentile) and those with "less crying" (< 75th percentile), based on the total amount of crying time. RESULTS: Some individual NBAS scores and "habituation" and "regulation of state" cluster scores were lower in the high-level-of-crying group. Infants in the group with a high level of crying had lower thresholds for response in the "peak of excitement", "rapidity of build-up", "irritability" and "general irritability" items. Logistic regression analysis revealed that lower "habituation" and "regulation of state" cluster scores were significantly associated with lower thresholds for crying. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that neonatal behavioural characteristics, such as hyperresponsivity and poor state regulation, are associated with high levels of crying. Clinical assessments based on the NBAS may help parents elucidate their infant's level of tolerance for stimuli, and identify strategies to minimize their crying.

Crying↗
PubMed2000

Are infant crying and maternal responsiveness during the first year related to infant-mother attachment at 15 months?

In this longitudinal investigation, Bell and Ainsworth's (1972) Baltimore study on maternal responsiveness, infant crying and infant attachment security was replicated and extended. Each of the 50 families was observed at home during more than 20 hours, and infant crying behavior as well as maternal responses were recorded. Mothers and their infants were observed in the Strange Situation procedure at 15 months of age. Descriptive results showed that infants produced about the same number of crying bouts across the first 40 weeks after birth, but the duration of the bouts decreased by half during this period. The duration of crying peaked in the first nine weeks. The descriptive data are remarkably similar to the findings of Bell and Ainsworth (1972). Maternal responsiveness influenced crying behavior. Contrary to our expectations, the more frequently mothers ignored their infants' crying bout in the first nine-week period, the less frequently their infants cried in the following nine-week period, even if intervening variables like earlier crying and synchronous responsiveness were controlled for. 'Benign neglect' of fussing may stimulate the emergent abilities in infants to cope with mild distress. Extending an earlier report on this investigation (Hubbard & van IJzendoorn, 1991), we found that crying at home did not differentiate between secure and insecure attachment classifications, and it was not related to Strange Situation crying. Mothers of avoidant infants responded most promptly to their infants' crying. The failure to replicate the Baltimore findings was interpreted in terms of 'differential responsiveness'.

Crying↗
PubMed1992

Crying does not exacerbate gastroesophageal reflux in infants.

The behavior and intraluminal esophageal pH of 48 infants (5-26 weeks old) were continuously recorded during the 120-min period following their ingestion of a standard volume of apple juice (pH approximately 4). To evaluate the effect of three basic behavior states on the frequency of infant gastroesophageal reflux, the data from all 19 of these infants who spent time in all three behavior states during the 120-min study were analyzed for this study. Results were expressed as the frequency of gastroesophageal reflux episodes per hour of time spent crying, per hour of time awake without crying, and per hour of time asleep. Reflux frequency while crying was compared to reflux frequency while awake without crying; reflux frequency awake (both crying and not crying combined) was compared to reflux frequency asleep. The results indicate that, as has been shown previously, sleeping decreases reflux frequency [nine (1-48) episodes per hour awake vs. two (0-134) episodes per hour asleep, expressed as median (range), p = 0.025], but that, contrary to expectation, crying appears to decrease rather than increase both reflux frequency [11 (0-84) episodes per hour crying vs. 17 (0-213) episodes per hour awake without crying, p = 0.035] and total duration [21% (0-79) of crying time with pH less than 4 vs. 41% (0-93) of noncrying awake time with pH less than 4, p = 0.025]. Crying does not exacerbate reflux in infants with gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Crying↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Management of the crying child during dental treatment.

The purposes of this study were: (1) To present parents' attitudes toward their child's crying in the dental environment. (2) To suggest a classification of crying children, and discuss its management implications. One hundred and four parents accompanying their children to dental treatment completed a questionnaire assessing the following: the tendency of the child to cry, the preferred approach of the operator to the crying child, and how the parents perceive their own role in such a case. Also the operator's assessment of the child's cooperation and of the child's tendency to cry were recorded. The sociodemographic variables of the parent were recorded, but no association was found with the dependent variables. Fifty-three percent of the parents assessed their children as having a tendency to cry, while only 25 percent children were assessed as such by the operators. Seventy-three percent of the parents preferred that the operator cease the treatment and calm the crying child before resuming. Sixty-nine percent of the parents stated that they should always help to manage the child, when crying takes place. Eleven children who were assessed by the operators as having a tendency to cry cooperated well during the treatment. The successful completion of dental treatment of a crying child is viewed as a partnership of the dentist and the parent. It is important that the dentist informs the parent about the method to be used, and have their consent. A new classification of the crying child is suggested.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

The signal functions of early infant crying.

In this article I evaluate recent attempts to illuminate the human infant cry from an evolutionary perspective. Infants are born into an uncertain parenting environment, which can range from indulgent care of offspring to infanticide. Infant cries are in large part adaptations that maintain proximity to and elicit care from caregivers. Although there is not strong evidence for acoustically distinct cry types, infant cries may function as a graded signal. During pain-induced autonomic nervous system arousal, for example, neural input to the vocal cords increases cry pitch. Caregivers may use this acoustic information, together with other cues, to guide caregiving behavior. Serious pathology, on the other hand, results in chronically and severely abnormal cry acoustics. Such abnormal crying may be a proximate cause of adaptive infant maltreatment, in circumstances in which parents cut their losses and reduce or withdraw investment from infants with low survival chances. An increase in the amount of crying during the first few months of life is a human universal, and excessive crying, or colic, represents the upper end of this normal increase. Potential signal functions of excessive crying include manipulation of parents to acquire additional resources, honest signaling of need, and honest signaling of vigor. Current evidence does not strongly support any one of these hypotheses, but the evidence is most consistent with the hypothesis that excessive early infant crying is a signal of vigor that evolved to reduce the risk of a reduction or withdrawal of parental care.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1977

The role of auditory stimuli in crying inhibition in the neonate.

An experiment on the latency and duration of the cessation of spontaneous crying supported evidence that a low frequency intense auditory stimulus inhibits crying in neonates. There was a slight increase in the length of the first pause in crying during exposure to a 200-c/s tone, but no difference in the latency of this first pause. Since crying intensity reaches 80 db SPL at the infant ear, it is hypothesized that auditory stimuli juxtaposed during crying is in fact masked. Hence to be effective, an auditory stimulus must be presented at the beginning of a natural pause in crying. An experiment on rhythm in cry patterns did not support the hypothesis that crying may be a naturally rhythmic pattern of behavior analogous to sucking and susceptible to psychophysical investigation. There was a large variance within and between Ss for the mean latency and duration of cry bursts and pauses. Exper. III asked mothers with infants of 10 days, 7 weeks, and 13 weeks of age to keep a crying activity schedule in their own homes. This study revealed a discontinuity between neonates and older infants in the conditions and patterns of crying. Interview data did indicate that reliable positive orienting responses did occur to natural auditory stimuli in a naturalistic setting.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1985

Adult perceptions of pain and hunger cries: a synchrony of arousal.

180 male and female nonparent adults rated tape-recordings of the initial, middle, and final 10-sec segments of pain and hunger cries on 4 7-point Likert-type scale items describing how urgent, arousing, aversive, and sick the cry segments sounded. Multivariate analyses of variance showed that the final segment of the pain cry was perceived as less urgent, arousing, and aversive than the initial and middle segments. The hunger cry was perceived as increasingly more urgent, arousing, and aversive from the initial to the middle to the final cry segments, with the final segment receiving higher ratings than the final segment of the pain cry. The middle segment of both cries was the most sick sounding. While females were more aroused than males as the hunger cry intensified, and females were less aroused than males as the pain cry subsided, the initial segments of the pain cry were particularly potent stimuli to both males and females. These results suggest that different segments of cries resulting from the same stimulus provide different messages that communicate the presumed level of infant arousal.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Transitional newborn infants in a hospital nursery: from first oral cue to first sustained cry.

Before crying, newborns exhibit oral cues. This study determined time and behavior between first oral cue and first sustained cry (2 minutes of crying) in 15 clinically normal infants postbirth (mean age 64 minutes). Mean minutes cue to cry was 31. Mean tonguing frequency was 108; hand-to-mouth (70); hand-passing-mouth (57); whimpering (49); rooting (19); empty sucking (14); startle (6); yawn (3); and sneeze (2). Mean minutes of intrinsic mouthing was 2.9; digit sucking (1.6); tongue sucking (1.2); sucking hand (1.1); fussing (1.0); and no cues (3.4). Mean minutes of crying was 1.1; hard crying (0.9). Mean longest single cry was 25 seconds. Mean inter-cry interval was 2 minutes. Crying occurred 13% of the time. During the physiologically critical period postbirth, responses to cues, rather than demands (cries), might prevent crying, decrease physiologic compromise, and foster appropriate care giver-infant interaction. This may enhance physiologic-psychosocial development.

Blood Circulation↗
PubMed2000

Common antigenicity between Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) pollen and Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) pollen, I. H-2 complex affects cross responsiveness to Cry j 1 and Cha o 1 at the T- and B-cell level in mice.

Common antigenicity among two purified Japanese cedar pollen allergens (Cry j 1 and Cry j 2) and one Japanese cypress pollen allergen (Cha o 1) was explored at the T-cell and B-cell level in mice of different H-2 haplotypes. Cry j 2 did not show any common antigenicity with Cry j 1 or Cha o 1. B10.S (H-2S) mice immunized with Cry j 1 or Cha o 1 generated T cells and antibodies reactive to both antigens, indicating the common antigenicity of these antigens. C57BL/6 (H-2b) mice were non-responders to Cry j 1. BALB/c (H-2d) mice immunized with Cry j 1 or Cha o 1 and C57BL/6 mice immunized with Cha o 1 generated T cells that were only reactive with the respective immunogen, but produced antibody reactive to both Cry j 1 and Cha o 1, indicating that Cry j 1 and Cha o 1 share their B-cell epitope but not their T-cell epitope. This finding may provide a clue for the clarification of the T-cell and B-cell epitopes of Cry j 1 and Cha o 1, even though the data are influenced by H-2 complex restriction in mice. Considering that H-2 complex restriction affects cross responsiveness to Cry j 1 and Cha o 1 at the T- and B-cell level in mice, we assessed the possible situation in humans exposed sequentially to Japanese cedar pollen and Japanese cypress pollen.

Allergens↗
PubMed2001

Roles of carbohydrates on Cry j 1, the major allergen of Japanese cedar pollen, in specific T-cell responses.

BACKGROUND: Carbohydrates expressed on allergens are known to be important for allergenicity. However, little is known about whether the carbohydrates drive the T(H)2 response. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine a role for carbohydrates expressed on Cry j 1, which is the major allergen of Cryptomeria japonica pollen and causes the most prevalent pollinosis in Japan, in in vitro cellular responses. METHODS: Carbohydrates on Cry j 1 were destroyed by periodate-oxidation under mild conditions. Proliferative responses and cytokine productions against native, periodate-treated, and mock-treated Cry j 1 were compared in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, Cry j 1-specific T-cell lines, and clones from patients with Japanese cedar pollinosis. RESULTS: We found that peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with Japanese cedar pollinosis displayed a significant decrease in proliferation and IL-5 production in response to periodate-treated Cry j 1 in comparison with native and mock-treated Cry j 1. Decreased proliferative responses against periodate-treated Cry j 1 were also seen in polyclonal T-cell lines, and the responses showed a heterogeneity. In addition, Cry j 1-specific CD4+ T-cell clones also displayed a significant decrease in proliferation and IL-4 and IL-5 production-but not IFN-gamma production-in comparison with the control antigens. However, most of the clones showed decreased but positive proliferative responses against periodate-treated Cry j 1. Blockade of the mannose receptor had no effect on cellular responses. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that carbohydrates on Cry j 1 play a major role in promoting Cry j 1-specific T(H)2 response in vitro, though they are not major targets as T-cell epitopes.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Excessive crying beyond 3 months may herald other features of multiple regulatory problems.

OBJECTIVE: To assess duration of excessive crying and its relation to sleep and eating disturbances in a population sample of infants. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Random digit-dialing survey, enrolling birth cohorts between 1999 and 2003, in Germany. PARTICIPANTS: Children aged 4 years and younger. MAIN EXPOSURES: Excessive crying, retrospectively ascertained according to modified Wessel's criteria, and duration of excessive crying. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Severe eating or sleeping problems at interview. RESULTS: The participation rate in the random digit-dialing survey was 62%. The analysis was confined to 1865 children with complete data. The observed prevalence for excessive crying ever was 16.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 14.7-18.1), beyond 3 months 5.8% (95% CI, 4.8-6.9), and beyond 6 months 2.5% (95% CI, 1.9-3.3). Excessive crying only in the first 3 months did not increase the prevalence of sleep or eating disturbances whereas crying beyond 6 months did; prevalence of eating disorders was 19.1% (95% CI, 9.1-33.3) and prevalence of sleeping disorders was 12.8% (95% CI, 4.8-25.7) compared with 2.7% (95% CI, 1.9-3.6) and 3.6% (95% CI, 2.7-4.6), respectively, in children without excessive crying. CONCLUSIONS: Persistence of crying beyond the first 6 months heralded a higher prevalence of eating or sleeping difficulties in children with excessive crying than in children without excessive crying. These parents should be offered support and counseling over a broader spectrum of features related to multiple regulatory problems.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1990

Neonatal facial and cry responses to invasive and non-invasive procedures.

Evaluation of pain in neonates is difficult due to their limited means of communication. The aim was to determine whether behavioural reactions of cry and facial activity provoked by an invasive procedure could be discriminated from responses to non-invasive tactile events. Thirty-six healthy full-term infants (mean age 2.2 h) received 3 procedures in counterbalanced order: intramuscular injection, application of triple dye to the umbilical stub, and rubbing thigh with alcohol. Significant effects of procedure were found for total face activity and latency to face movement. A cluster of facial actions comprised of brow bulging, eyes squeezed shut, deepening of the naso-labial furrow and open mouth was associated most frequently with the invasive procedure. Comparisons between the 2 non-invasive procedures showed more facial activity to thigh swabbing and least to application of triple dye to the umbilical cord. Acoustic analysis of cry showed statistically significant differences across procedures only for latency to cry and cry duration for the group as a whole. However, babies who cried to two procedures showed higher pitch and greater intensity to the injection. There were no significant differences in melody, dysphonation, or jitter. Methodological difficulties for investigators in this area were examined, including criteria for the selection of cries for analysis, and the logical and statistical challenges of contrasting cries induced by different conditions when some babies do not always cry. It was concluded that facial expression, in combination with short latency to onset of cry and long duration of first cry cycle typifies reaction to acute invasive procedures.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1984

Sound spectrographic cry analysis of infants with hydrocephalus.

Altogether 248 cries from 62 infants with hydrocephalus were analysed by sound spectrography: 92 cries from infants with congenital hydrocephalus and 52 cries from each of the groups with cerebral malformations, hydrocephalus as sequelae of meningitis, and after closure of a meningomyelocele. The cries were compared with 104 cries of normal healthy infants of corresponding age. The cry analysis showed that the most abnormal cries were seen in infants with congenital hydrocephalus and cerebral malformations. The pitch of the fundamental frequency did not differ from normal crying in cries of infants collected after recovery from meningitis and after closure of a meningomyelocele. The cries in hydrocephalus after meningitis showed more commonly flat melody types and the occurrence of bi-phonation.

Crying↗