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PubMed1997

[Athlete's heart in elite disabled athletes].

PURPOSE: To assess the prevalence of the athlete's, heart syndrome in elite disabled Brazilians athletes. METHODS: Seventy-five athletes, age 27.8 +/- 6.7 years, 56 men, with various disabilities (47 physical, 12 visual and 16 cerebral paralysis) underwent clinical, electrocardiographic, vectorcardiographic, ergometric and echocardiographic evaluations. RESULTS: Athlete's heart signs occurred in 33% of the clinical evaluations, in 55% of the electrocardiograms, in 15% of the vectorcardiograms, and in 5% of the echocardiograms. At least one of these signs was presented in 51% of the athletes. There were 2 or more abnormalities in 46% of the athletes and 4 or more signs in 12%. Exercise test was considered not ischemic in 77% of the subjects. There was right bundle branch block in 23% of the tests. CONCLUSION: There were two or more athlete's heart syndrome signs in 46% of Brazilian disabled athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Athlete's heart: right and left ventricular mass and function in male endurance athletes and untrained individuals determined by magnetic resonance imaging.

OBJECTIVES: Athlete's heart represents a structural and functional adaptation to regular endurance exercise. BACKGROUND: While left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy of the athlete's heart has been examined in many studies, the extent of right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy is still uncertain because of its complex shape and trabecular structure. To examine RV hypertrophy, we used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and hypothesized that athlete's heart is characterized by similar LV and RV hypertrophy. METHODS: The LV and RV mass, volume, and function in 21 male endurance athletes (A) (27 +/- 4 years; 70 +/- 8 kg; 178 +/- 7 cm; maximal oxygen uptake [VO(2)max]: 68 +/- 5 ml/min per kg) and 21 pair-matched untrained control subjects (C) (26 +/- 3 years; 71 +/- 9 kg; 178 +/- 6 cm; VO(2)max: 42 +/- 6 ml/min per kg) were analyzed by MRI (Magnetom Vision 1.5T, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). RESULTS: Left ventricular masses: (A: 200 +/- 20 g; C: 148 +/- 17 g) and RV masses (A: 77 +/- 10 g; C: 56 +/- 8 g) differed significantly between the groups (p < 0.001). The LV and RV end-diastolic volumes (EDV) (LV-EDV 167 +/- 28 ml [A]; 125 +/- 16 ml [C]; RV-EDV 160 +/- 26 ml [A]; 128 +/- 10 ml [C]), and stroke volumes (SV) (LV-SV: 99 +/- 18 ml [A], 74 +/- 11 ml [C]; RV-SV: 102 +/- 18 ml [A], 79 +/- 8 ml [C]) were significantly different between the athletes and control subjects (p < 0.001), whereas ejection fractions (EF) (LV-EF: 59 +/- 3% [A]; 59 +/- 6% [C]; RV-EF: 63 +/- 3% [A], 62 +/- 3% [C]) and LV-to-RV ratios were similar for both groups (LV-to-RV mass: 2.6 +/- 0.2 [A], 2.6 +/- 0.3 [C]; LV-to-RV EDV: 1.05 +/- 0.14 [A], 0.99 +/- 0.14 [C]; LV-to-RV SV: 0.98 +/- 0.17 [A], 0.95 +/- 0.17 [C]; LV-to-RV EF: 0.93 +/- 0.07 [A], 0.96 +/- 0.10 [C]). CONCLUSIONS: Regular and extensive endurance training results in similar changes in LV and RV mass, volume, and function in endurance athletes. This leads to the conclusion that the athlete's heart is a balanced enlarged heart.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Lipoprotein(a) in endurance athletes, power athletes, and sedentary controls.

Elevated concentrations of lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] have been shown to be an independent risk factor for atherosclerotic disease. Physical activity and physical fitness have been shown to improve lipoprotein metabolism and reduce the risk of coronary artery disease. Studies on the influence of physical activity and physical fitness on Lp(a) levels including a large number of endurance as well as power athletes have not been performed before. Therefore, we determined parameters of physical fitness (maximal oxygen consumption), physical activity, and lipoproteins in 105 endurance athletes, 57 power athletes, and 87 sedentary young men. As expected, we found that endurance athletes with a good physical fitness had significantly higher concentrations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol than power athletes and sedentary controls. Regarding mean Lp(a) levels (rocket immunoelectrophoresis), however, there were no significant differences between endurance athletes, power athletes, and sedentary controls. Even when including only those with Lp(a) values > 10 mg.dl-1, no differences were observed between the groups. These findings indicate that intensive training over years and good aerobic fitness improve the ratio of low-density lipoprotein to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol but have no or only minor effects on Lp(a) concentrations.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Athlete's heart in postmenopausal former elite endurance female athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate cardiac structure and function and exercise capacity in senior former elite athlete women. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty postmenopausal former elite endurance athletes and 19 age-matched sedentary controls. METHODS: All subjects underwent transthoracic Doppler echocardiography and maximal exercise test on a bicycle ergometer. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cardiac chamber dimensions, wall thickness, cardiac function, and exercise capacity. RESULTS: The athletes had a greater exercise capacity (183 +/- 26 vs. 144 +/- 36 W; P < 0.01) compared with controls. Three of 20 (15%) athletes and 9 of 19 (47%) controls exhibited ST depressions during exercise test (P < 0.05). Echocardiographic measurements demonstrated larger left ventricular diameter (2.9 +/- 0.3 vs. 2.6 +/- 0.2 cm/m; P < 0.01), left ventricular volume (64 +/- 14 vs. 54 +/- 8 mL/m; P < 0.05), right ventricular diameter (1.6 +/- 0.2 vs. 1.4 +/- 0.2 cm/m; P < 0.01), left atrial volume (20.8 +/- 6 vs. 16.6 +/- 3.6 mL/m; P < 0.05), and stroke volume (45 +/- 10 vs. 36 +/- 5 mL/m; P < 0.01) in athletes than controls, whereas interventricular septum (9.3 +/- 1.7 vs. 10.1 +/- 1.8 mm; P > 0.05) and posterior wall thickness (9.0 +/- 1.6 vs. 9.2 +/- 1.0 mm; P > 0.05) did not differ between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates cardiac enlargement without increased wall thickness in postmenopausal former elite endurance athlete women. Our results also indicate that long-term training maintains a high level of cardiovascular fitness in the aging female athletes.

Cardiac Output↗
PubMed1991

Marked augmentation of nocturnal melatonin secretion in amenorrheic athletes, but not in cycling athletes: unaltered by opioidergic or dopaminergic blockade.

Exercise of sufficient intensity during daylight hours has been demonstrated to result in an acute elevation of circulating melatonin levels. The possibility that repeated elevations of daytime melatonin secretion may result in alterations of the nocturnal maxima of the circadian rhythm in highly trained athletic women with and without amenorrhea was investigated. Twenty-four-hour melatonin profiles in matched cyclic sedentary (CS; n = 10) women, cyclic athletic (CA; n = 10) women, and amenorrheic athletic (AA; n = 8) women were compared. The roles of endogenous opioids and dopamine as potential modulators of melatonin secretion were also evaluated by comparing the melatonin profiles during sequential 24-h infusions of saline, followed by either naloxone or metoclopramide (both at 30 micrograms/kg.h). Elevated (P less than 0.05) mean daytime (1000-1700 h) melatonin levels were observed in both groups of athletic women compared to sedentary women. In contrast, nocturnal melatonin levels in sedentary and athletic cycling women were indistinguishable, while amenorrheic athletic women displayed a marked increase in nocturnal peak amplitude (P less than 0.001 vs. CS and CA) and a 2-h delay in offset (P less than 0.001 vs. CS and CA), which yielded a 2-fold amplification of the integrated nocturnal melatonin secretion (P less than 0.001 vs. CS and CA). The onset of the nocturnal rise did not differ among the three groups. Opioidergic and dopaminergic blockade with naloxone and metoclopramide at the doses used did not alter any parameter of melatonin secretion in any of the three groups of women. In conclusion, athleticism in women is associated with an elevation of daytime melatonin levels independent of menstrual status. AA women, but not CA women, display a 2-fold amplification of nocturnal melatonin secretion with a 2-h delay of offset, which does not seem to be linked to athleticism per se. The significance and neuroendocrine basis for the expanded melatonin secretion in athletic amenorrheic women remains to be elucidated.

2-Methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic Acid↗
PubMed2002

Enforcement of Mouthguard Use and Athlete Compliance in National Collegiate Athletic Association Men's Collegiate Ice Hockey Competition.

OBJECTIVE: To determine enforcement patterns and athlete compliance with the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) rule requiring the wearing of mouthguards in men's collegiate ice hockey games during a single competitive season. DESIGN AND SETTING: We developed a questionnaire and sent it to certified athletic trainers (ATCs) directly responsible for men's varsity collegiate ice hockey at 127 NCAA-affiliated institutions. Then chi(2) analyses were conducted to determine whether significant differences existed in the pattern of responses by division of play (Division I, II, or III or independent). SUBJECTS: A total of 104 ATCs responded. We obtained data from 94 questionnaires with complete answers to primary questions addressing program enforcement of the rule and mouthguard use. MEASUREMENTS: Our questionnaire asked about types of mouthguards used, attitudes of the sports medicine and coaching staffs regarding the role of mouthguards in prevention of injury, enforcement of mouthguard use, and actual numbers of athletes wearing mouthguards in competition. Respondents also provided an estimate of the number of penalties assessed against their team for mouthguard violations during the previous season. RESULTS: Most ATCs (93%) reported that they believed mouthguards play a role in injury prevention. Respondents indicated someone on the coaching or sports medicine staff enforced the rule at 74% of the institutions, with a trend toward greater enforcement at the Division II and III levels. Overall, ATCs reported 63% of athletes consistently wore mouthguards in competition, with significantly higher compliance at the Division II and III levels. A total of 19 penalties were reportedly assessed for violation of the mouthguard rule the previous season. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that the use of mouthguards in competition is not consistently enforced by ATCs, coaches, or game officials and that mouthguards are not routinely worn by athletes. These results raise legitimate concerns for all physicians, athletic trainers, coaches, and governing bodies involved with men's collegiate ice hockey.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

A Nationwide Learning-Style Assessment of Undergraduate Athletic Training Students in CAAHEP-Accredited Athletic Training Programs.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the learning styles and preferred environmental characteristics of undergraduate athletic training students in Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP)-accredited athletic training education programs and to determine if learning-style differences existed among geographic regions of the country. DESIGN AND SETTING: Fifty CAAHEP-accredited athletic training programs were randomly selected in proportion to the number of programs in each geographic region. Ten students from each school were selected to complete the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (LSI) and the Productivity Environmental Preference Survey (PEPS). SUBJECTS: A total of 193 undergraduate athletic training students (84 men, 109 women) with a mean age of 22.3 +/- 2.8 years completed the PEPS, while 188 students completed the LSI. MEASUREMENTS: We used chi-square analyses to determine if differences existed in learning-style type and if these differences were based on geographic location. We calculated analysis of variance to determine if there were any geographic differences in the mean overall combination scores of the LSI. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the PEPS. RESULTS: The overall return rate was 38%. The chi-square analyses revealed no significant difference in learning-style type for athletic training students, regardless of the geographic region. The LSI yielded a relatively even distribution of learning styles: 29.3% of the students were accommodators, 19.7% were divergers, 21.8% were convergers, and 29.3% were assimilators. The overall mean combination scores were 4.9 (abstract-concrete) and 4.9 (active-reflective), and analysis of variance indicated no significant difference in the mean combination scores among the geographic regions. The PEPS revealed that undergraduate athletic training students demonstrated a strong preference for learning in the afternoon. CONCLUSIONS: Undergraduate athletic training students demonstrated great diversity in learning style. Educators must strongly consider this diversity and incorporate teaching methods that will benefit all types of learners.

Journal Article↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Organizational influences and quality-of-life issues during the professional socialization of certified athletic trainers working in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I setting.

CONTEXT: Health professionals are exposed to critical influences and pressures when socialized into their work environments. Little is known about the organizational socialization of certified athletic trainers (ATs) in the collegiate context. OBJECTIVE: To discuss the organizational influences and quality-of-life issues as each relates to the professional socialization of ATs working in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I setting. DESIGN: A qualitative design of in-depth interviews and follow-up electronic interviews was used to examine the organizational socialization of ATs. SETTING: Participants associated with Division I athletic programs from 4 National Athletic Trainers' Association districts volunteered for the study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 11 men and 5 women participated in the study, consisting of 14 ATs and 2 athletic directors. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed inductively. A peer review, member checks, and data source triangulation were performed to establish trustworthiness. RESULTS: Two categories emerged that provide insight into the experiences that affected the professional socialization of the ATs: organizational influences and quality-of-life issues. The data indicate that the participants in this study were heavily influenced by the bureaucratic tendencies of the Division I athletic organizations in which they worked. The participants were extremely concerned about the diminished quality of life that may result from being an AT in this context. They were, however, able to maintain a commitment to delivering quality care to the student-athletes despite these influences. High work volume and low administrative support were commonly cited as problems, thus creating concern about diminished quality of life and the fear of burnout. CONCLUSIONS: The AT's role appears not only rewarding but also challenging. The reward is working closely with patients and developing an interpersonal bond; the challenge is dealing with a bureaucratic structure and balancing one's professional and personal lives to prevent burnout. Thought should be given to using intervention strategies to mitigate the negative influences on the AT's role.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1986

Age-related loss of bone mineral density in non-athletic and athletic women.

Single and dual photon absorptiometry were performed at the mid-radius, distal radius and lumbar spine in 1105 non-athletic and 124 athletic Caucasian women aged 18-98 years. An age-related loss of bone mineral density in mg/cm2 (BMD) occurred at the three skeletal sites. It was first demonstrated that a single break in the regression line (BMD versus Age) best fit the data. The break represented the approximate age at which an increase in the rate of bone density loss occurred. This break is termed the 'cutpoint'. The approximate (average) age at which the cutpoint occurred was determined by segmented regression analysis with bone density as the dependent variable. The age range studied was between 45 and 55 years. At all three bone sites, the cutpoints in non-athletic women occurred between 47 and 52 years of age, corresponding roughly to the time of menopause. Following this cutpoint the rate of bone loss increased at all three locations in non-athletic women. In athletic women no cutpoint in BMD values could be demonstrated for this age range for the two radial sites. The number of lumbar spine measurements in this group was too small for analysis. The absence of a significant change in rate of bone loss in athletes could have been due to the relatively small number of subjects. It could also suggest that regular sustained exercise programs may delay or minimize the increased rate of loss of BMD which occurs in non-athletic women in the perimenopausal period.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Comparison of bone mineral density between athletic and non-athletic Chinese male adolescents.

For the evaluation of the effect of exercise on bone mineral density of adolescent athletes, twenty-nine Chinese male adolescent athletes, each of whom had regular training in his major sport which included baseball, swimming, judo and middle/long-distance running for one to six years and eight age-matched non-athletic controls were included in this study. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured in all study subjects using dual photo absorptiometry at the second to fourth lumbar spines (L2-4) and the right femoral neck (FN). The results revealed the following: (1) the combined group of athletes had significantly greater BMD of L2-4 (1.08 +/- 0.09 g/cm2) than the control group (0.99 +/- 0.08 g/cm2) and a tendency for greater BMD of FN (1.15 +/- 0.13 g/cm2) than the control group (1.09 +/- 0.13 g/cm2); (2) judo majors had significantly greater BMD of L2-4 than baseball majors (P < 0.05), swimming majors (P < 0.01), track majors (P < 0.05) and controls (P < 0.005); (3) baseball majors had significantly greater BMD of L2-4 than controls (P < 0.05) and greater BMD of FN than swimming majors (P < 0.05), judo majors (P < 0.05), track majors (P < 0.005) and controls (P < 0.005); (4) body weight and body mass index (BMI) had good correlation with BMD of L2-4 and FN in control group, (5) in the combined group of athletes, weight and BMI were only strongly linked to BMD of FN, and not to BMD of L2-4. There was no good correlation between BMI and BMD of L2-4 and FN in any group of athletes. We concluded that (1) physical activity during adolescence may contribute significantly towards increasing BMD of athletes and (2) the training type may provide a specific stimulus for increasing BMD at specific localized sites experienced in training.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Symphysis syndrome in athletes: surgical treatment for chronic lower abdominal, groin, and adductor pain in athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the results of surgical treatment on athletes presenting with chronic symphysis syndrome (lower abdominal, groin, and adductor pain). DESIGN: Retrospective nonrandomized study. SETTING: Swiss Olympic Medical Center associated with Institute of Sports Sciences. PATIENTS: Twenty-four athletes who were treated for chronic symphysis syndrome, a combination of abdominal, groin, and adductor pain, were evaluated for an average of 6.6 years after surgery. All athletes were males, with a mean age of 25.8 years. The average duration of chronic symptoms was 17 months. INTERVENTIONS: Of patients, 20 underwent spreading of the lateral border of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle together with an epimysial adductor release, and 4 had only the reconstruction of the rectus abdominis muscle. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Subjective (questionnaire) and objective (clinical examination) follow-up data using point scores were obtained at a mean of 6.6 years posttreatment. RESULTS: The mean point score in the subjective overall rating was 10.2 (maximum 12) and in the objective rating was 12.0 (maximum 13). Of athletes, 21 were very content, 2 were content, and 1 was not content. Full sports activity was noted in 23 of 24 athletes. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical treatment of chronic symphysis syndrome is successful and can salvage the career of athletes.

Abdominal Pain↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Management of severe lower abdominal or inguinal pain in high-performance athletes. PAIN (Performing Athletes with Abdominal or Inguinal Neuromuscular Pain Study Group).

The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the pathophysiologic processes of severe lower-abdominal or inguinal pain in high-performance athletes. We evaluated 276 patients; 175 underwent pelvic floor repairs. Of the 157 athletes who had not undergone previous surgery, 124 (79%) participated at a professional or other highly competitive level, and 138 patients (88%) had adductor pain that accompanied the lower-abdominal or inguinal pain. More patients underwent related adductor releases during the later operative period in the series. Evaluation revealed 38 other abnormalities, including severe hip problems and malignancies. There were 152 athletes (97%) who returned to previous levels of performance. The syndrome was uncommon in women and the results were less predictable in nonathletes. A distinct syndrome of lower-abdominal/adductor pain in male athletes appears correctable by a procedure designed to strengthen the anterior pelvic floor. The location and pattern of pain and the operative success suggest the cause to be a combination of abdominal hyperextension and thigh hyperabduction, with the pivot point being the pubic symphysis. Diagnosis of "athletic pubalgia" and surgery should be limited to a select group of high-performance athletes. The consideration of other causes of groin pain in the patient is critical.

Abdominal Pain↗
PubMed2005

Path integration: is there a difference between athletes and non-athletes?

The ability to estimate distance walked when blindfolded is associated with the vestibular, proprioceptive and (loco-)motor systems. In this study, we examined subjects' ability to walk when blindfolded to a previously seen target. We examined whether there is a difference of performance in path integration between athletes and non-athletes. Two groups of healthy volunteers took part in this experiment: 21 athletes and 20 non-athletes. Subjects were asked to walk at three different velocities (slow, normal, fast) to a target (10 m in front of them) that they had seen before being blindfolded. Increase in velocity was associated with a decrease in the distance walked for both groups. Both groups were accurate at normal velocities. Athletes were also accurate at fast velocities whereas non-athletes undershot the target. In both groups, accuracy considerably decreased at slow velocities. It seems that our perceptual system can adapt to different velocities (normal, fast) but is most strongly disrupted at low velocity. When attempting to modify walking velocity, step length is also modified, playing a determining role in the estimation of distance.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Sports-specific adaptation of left ventricular muscle mass in athlete's heart. I. An echocardiographic study with combined isometric and dynamic exercise trained athletes (male and female rowers).

The differentiation of the physiological left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy of the athlete's heart in opposition to a pathological finding may be problematic especially in both strength and endurance trained athletes with simultaneously large body dimensions: 64 male and 71 female rowers of regional up to national level were examined by (Doppler) echocardiography. In addition, the rowers were compared by matched-pair procedures both with 32 male and 30 female non-endurance trained (pairwise similar body surface area) and with 28 male endurance athletes (pairwise similar absolute heart volume). The so-called critical heart weight of 500 g was exceeded by 63% of the male and 11% of the female rowers. 9% of the male rowers showed even an LV muscle mass above the limit of 3.5 g.kg-1 body mass. The individual maximal body surface area-related values were 170 g.m-2 (men) and 133 g.m-2 (women). The LV enddiastolic internal diameter was measured to be above the upper clinical limit of 55 mm in 69% or 23% of the male and female rowers, although a maximal LV wall thickness of 14 or 13 mm, respectively, was never exceeded. The systolic LV function as well as ECG and blood pressure did not reveal any pathological findings, the diastolic LV function was measured within the (supra) normal range. The LV wall thicknesses, internal diameter and hypertrophic index (relation between wall thickness and internal diameter) were significantly higher in rowers than in non-endurance trained subjects, but similar if compared to the endurance athletes. The clinical limits, however, keep their validity until a body mass of about 70 kg. In conclusion, some upper absolute clinical limits, especially those referring to volume measurements, so far considered critical (LV internal diameter, heart weight and LV mass), may be clearly exceeded by healthy strength endurance trained athletes presenting high body dimensions. The LV wall thickness, however, rather exceptionally exceeded the clinical limits. If referring to body dimensions, the cardiac dimensions in rowers are still lower in comparison to highly-trained "pure" endurance athletes. A specific influence of the isometric exercise component on the LV hypertrophy cannot be observed.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1989

Sex difference in muscle cross-sectional area of athletes and non-athletes.

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether there is a sex difference in limb muscle cross-sectional area by comparing upper- and lower-body limb fat-free cross-sectional areas (FFCSAs) adjusted for differences in fat-free weight (FFW), in male and female athletes with similar histories of upper-body physical conditioning and in non-athletes. Limb FFCSAs were calculated from circumferences corrected for subcutaneous fat thickness and FFW was estimated from body density measured by underwater weighing in 24 male and 25 female swimmers and 23 male and 25 female non-athletes, 15 to 28 years of age. The male swimmers had 32% larger FFWs and 49% larger upper-arm, similar forearm and 23% larger thigh FFCSAs compared to the female swimmers. The male non-athletes had 34% larger FFWs, 61% larger upper-arms, 54% larger forearms and 35% larger thighs than female non-athletes. To adjust for differences in body size, analysis of covariance was performed on the FFCSAs using FFW as the covariate. For the swimmers there were no significant differences (P greater than 0.05) in the adjusted FFCSAs. For the non-athletes, males had significantly larger adjusted upper-arm and forearm FFCSAs than the females but thigh FFCSAs were not significantly different (P greater than 0.05). These results suggest that sex differences in muscle area of the arms, may be partially attributed to long-term activity differences between sexes. Possible long-term differences in activity between sexes should be considered in comparisons of functional or performance measures between sexes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

The career planning, athletic identity, and student role identity of intercollegiate student athletes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the career planning of university student athletes and relationships between their career planning and athletic and student role identities. Two retrospective in-depth interviews were held with four male and four female university student athletes. Participants entered university with vague or nonexistent career objectives and invested heavily in their athletic roles. In the latter years of their college career, the participants discarded their sport career ambitions and allowed the student role to become more prominent in their identity hierarchies. The current findings support Brown and Hartley's (1998) suggestion that student athletes may invest in both the athlete and student role identities simultaneously and that investing in the latter may permit the exploration of nonsport career options.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Validity of the Mellits and Cheek method for body-fat estimation in relation to menstrual cycle status in athletes and non-athletes below 22 per cent fat.

The present experiment tested the hypothesis that 22% body fat based on the Mellits and Cheek (1970) regression equation is a minimum or 'trigger' level of fatness required to maintain regularity of menstrual cycles. The validity of the regression equation was cross-validated against densitometric estimates of body fat in 30 athletes (track, gymnastic, crew) and 30 non-athletes who were below 22% fat. For the total sample, the validity correlation was r = 0.47 between body fat (density) and body fat (regression equation); it was r = 0.75 for athletes and r = 0.47 for non-athletes. For all subjects, 60% had regular menses, 27% were oligomenorrheic and 13% were amenorrheic. The lowest body fat (density) was 12.8% for an athlete with a regular cycle and 12.2% for an oligomenorrheic athlete. The results show that: the Mellits and Cheek (1970) height-weight based regression equation to determine fatness is not valid for women below 22% fat, and 13% body fat (not 22%), should be considered an upper-bound estimate of a minimum level of fatness associated with normal ovulatory cycles.

Adipose Tissue↗