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PubMed1996

A primary health care approach to an outbreak of cutaneous larva migrans.

Primary health care (PHC) has been defined by the World Health Organisation as essential health care made universally accessible to community members, with their full participation, at a cost affordable to the community. PHC could therefore be used in the prevention and treatment of zoonotic diseases in humans, as such diseases are more prevalent in disadvantaged communities. The successful use of PHC principles in the treatment and control of cutaneous larva migrans in children in a semi-rural, low-income community is discussed in this paper. Constraints to implementation of PHC principles were identified as resistance from health care professionals, lack of interdepartmental cooperation and bureaucratic delays. It is concluded that PHC principles can be used successfully for the prevention and treatment of specific zoonoses provided that an aetiological diagnosis is made and the epidemiology of the condition understood. The results also confirmed the relevance of the veterinarian in the control of zoonotic diseases as part of the PHC team.

Ancylostoma↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Influenza, a special form of zoonosis].

Findings based on molecular genetics and phylogeny indicate that avian species represent an important reservoir for influenza viruses and that virus strains of man and different mammals originated from avian influenza virus ancestors. In contrast to infectious agents causing classical zoonoses, influenza viruses have to alter their genetic make up in order to change their host range. The special, segmented structure of the viral RNA allows an exchange of gene(s) between two different influenza viruses (reassortment) resulting in viruses with different combinations of genome segments and thereby creating new biological properties. Under the selective pressure of the new host the most adapted virus variants will succeed which arose from a genetically heterogeneous virus population with additional mutations. In particular mutations of the genes encoding the polymerase complex (mutator mutations) would be advantageous for rapid adaptation in a hostile environment. The generation of influenza viruses capable of overcoming the species barrier is a rare event since only virus variants will succeed which are genetically stable and transmissible and which replicate efficiently in the new host. It is considered likely that pigs act as intermediate hosts for adaptation of avian viruses to man.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Animal exposure risks. Implications for occupational health nurses.

1. Diseases transmitted from animals to humans, referred to as zoonoses, pose risks for persons occupationally exposed to animals. 2. Occupational health nurses should be proactive in identifying potential occupational health risks and educating employees to protect themselves from animal exposure risks. 3. Exposure history should include exposure to birds and animals during occupational and recreational activities. 4. Primary prevention is critical, as immunizations and treatments are limited and include many associated risks.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

[Veterinary medicine and preventive medicine].

Veterinary medicine concentrates its main activities onto the curative practice for animals but also onto the field of health protection for men since a very long time. But as late as in the year 1900 the first regulation by law within the modern world was edited in Germany. It was initiated by the well-known pathologist Virchow in Berlin and elaborated, besides other veterinarians, by the first food hygienist at the Veterinary School of Berlin, Robert von Ostertag. At that time, the protection of men from the classical infections caused by bacteria was the target, e.g. tuberculosis and the so-called food poisoning. Also, parasitoses like trichinellosis or hydatidosis were the most fought enemies. Nearly 100 years after the application of this regulation by law new types of zoonoses or zooanthroponoses get importance in the view of preventive medicine fulfilled by veterinarians. That are infections which can not be recognized visually and clinically in the new breeding and fattening ways for animals. Such latent infections are the main targets in the present goals and objectives of food hygiene. An undefined and unsolved problem seems to be the occurrence of the BSE of cattle in Great Britain. It may be regarded as a new and intermediate form of a latent and apparent disease of animals which may be dangerous by an unknown way also for men. Since the seventies of this century, the interest of veterinary medicine was focussed also onto residue levels within the products from food animals. These are caused by "substances with pharmacological efficacy", illegally handled by agronoms or veterinarians or by "poisons from the contaminated environment" provoked by industrial emission or manipulations by men. A classical task of food hygiene within the veterinary medicine is to protect the consumer from being taken advantage of through the sale of products containing substantial disregulatory structures of animal tissues.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed1997

[Current status of anthrax or black fever].

Although anthrax is one of the oldest recognized infectious diseases in the world, it remains widespread particularly in tropical zones such as Africa. The impact of this major zoonoses is further enhanced by the fact that the pulmonary form can be used for biological warfare. Recently there has been a revival of interest in anthrax and research has benefited greatly from advances in molecular biology. The main factors accounting for the virulence of Bacillus anthracis have been elucidated. The author reports current data concerning pathogenesis, epidemiology and diagnosis and reviews progress made in the field of prophylaxis especially with regard to vaccines.

Africa↗
PubMed1997

[Current status of Rift Valley fever. What lessons to deduce from the epidemics of 1977 and 1987?].

The epidemiology of Rift Valley Fever has undergone extensive revision over the last twenty years since the epidemics that occurred in Egypt in 1977 and Mauritania in 1987. From 1931 when the disease was first described until the end of the 70s, Rift Valley Fever was considered to be a relatively benign zoonoses for man that developed in domestic animals (especially sheep) periodically following heavy rainy seasons. The presumptive reservoir for the virus in latent years was an unidentified animal living in the wilderness. However the outbreaks in Egypt and Mauritania and data obtained from ensuing research led to complete reassessment of this assumption. Current data suggest that environmental factors (especially ecological changes caused by development of hydroelectric resources) and low-grade transmission in domestic animals (especially rodents) could account for survival of the virus in zones uninhabited by wild animals and in Sahelian areas.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

[Viral hemorrhagic fevers: what is the risk for travelers?].

The term hemorrhagic fever covers a number of diseases with different clinical and epidemiologic features. All these diseases are zoonoses but their occurrence is not confined to tropical areas. Some occur in polar zones. Travelers to endemic areas for these diseases are at risk of infection. There are two modes of transmission. Arthropods are vectors for some diseases such as yellow fever, dengue fever, and Rift Valley fever which are carried by mosquitos and Congo-Crimea virus which is carried by ticks. Airborne contamination by rodent excrement is responsible for transmission of hantaviruses and arenaviruses. Nosocomial infection is a risk for health care providers. Some types of hemorrhagic fever such as Bolivian hemorrhagic fever are highly localized, while other types such as dengue are observed worldwide. Judging from the small number of cases observed in European countries, the overall risk for travelers seems low except unless high-risk activities are planned. The main exceptions are yellow fever and dengue which can easily be transmitted to tourists by mosquitos. Yellow fever can be prevented by vaccination. Typical dengue is usually self-limited but hemorrhagic forms require treatment to prevent shock.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Public health significance of zoonotic tapeworms in Korea.

Through an epidemiological review on the zoonotic tapeworms in Korea, the frequency and severity of the zoonoses have been recognized. Taeniasis and human cysticercosis are of importance to the public health in Korea. The frequency of taeniasis is 0.3% to 12.7% discovered by stool examination and 4.5% to 38.0% discovered by questionaire survey. Taeniasis occurs more frequently in males than in females and, especially, in both sexes in the age-group of 20 to 49. T. saginata is more common that T. solium. No case of human cysticercosis caused by T.saginata has been reported in Korea. To the contrary, human cysticercosis caused by T. solium has been reported frequently during the 1960's. The severity of human cysticercosis is a significant problem of public health in Korea. Old data on bovine cysticercosis in the 1920's and 1930's are not useful for present control measures. Systematic surveys on bovine and swine cysticercosis as well as taeniasis and human cysticercosis are needed in Korea. Cases of sparganosis have been reported frequently during the past 15 years. Most of the 34 cases of sparganosis reported involved the eating of raw snakes and frogs. Most of the cases occurred in older males. Sparganosis in snakes, frogs, chickens, and swine has been reported in Korea. Human infection of Hymenolepis nana ranged from 0.2% to 1.4% discovered by stool examination. A few cases of adult worm collections of Diphyllobothrium latum and Hymenolepis diminuta have been reported in Korea. Two cases of human hydatid disease have been reported in Korea. No study on the disease in domestic animals is available. No case of human infection with dog tapeworm has been reported, even though it is highly prevalent in the indigenous dogs in Korea. I recommend that further study on the zoonotic tapeworms be conducted epidemiologically in Korea to get basic data for the public health programming.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1978

Some helminthozoonotic infections in Zambia.

Parasitic infections constitute an important group of zoonoses. Stool examination of inpatients, medical examinees and out-patients in a sub-tropical environment established that Inermicapsifer madagascariensis and Schistosoma mattheei are occasionally anthropozoonotic in Zambia. Strongyloides fülleborni, a species normally parasitic in primates is not uncommon in man; whether it is anthropozoonotic or a parasite well adapted to man in this part of Africa needs further investigation. The finding of unidentified spiruroid ova was considered to be due to a spurious infection. The need for the differentiation of such organisms from those commonly infecting man is emphasized especially since the literature on such a subject is so sparse in the country and on the continent.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Cellular organization and appearance of differentiated structures in developing stages of the parasitic platyhelminth Echinococcus granulosus.

Echinococcus granulosus is the causative agent of hydatidosis, a major zoonoses that affects humans and herbivorous domestic animals. The disease is caused by the pressure exerted on viscera by hydatid cysts that are formed upon ingestion of E. granulosus eggs excreted by canine. Protoscoleces, larval forms infective to canine, develop asynchronously and clonally from the germinal layer (GL) of hydatid cysts. In this report, we describe the cellular organization and the appearance of differentiated structures both in nascent buds and developed protoscoleces attached to the GL. Early protoscolex morphogenesis is a highly complex and dynamic process starting from the constitution of a foramen in the early bud, around which nuclei are distributed mainly at the lateral and apical regions. Similarly, distribution of nuclei in mature protoscoleces is not homogenous but underlies three cellular territories: the suckers, the rostellar pad, and the body, that surrounds the foramen. Several nuclei are associated to calcareous corpuscles (Cc), differentiated structures that are absent in the earlier bud stages. The number of nuclei is similar from the grown, elongated bud stage to the mature protoscolex attached to the GL, strongly suggesting that there is no significant cellular proliferation during final protoscolex development. The amount of DNA per nucleus is in the same range to the one described for most other platyhelminthes. Our results point to a sequential series of events involving cell proliferation, spatial cell organization, and differentiation, starting in early buds at the GL of fertile hydatid cysts leading to mature protoscoleces infective to canine.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

High prevalence of antibodies to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in a murine typhus endemic region in Croatia.

A retrospective serological survey was carried out by the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and complement fixation (CF) test in a sample of 425 healthy residents (240 females and 185 males) to investigate whether Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) circulates in the rural area of the northern Croatian island of Vir, which is known to be endemic for murine typhus. The overall prevalence of LCMV antibodies detected by IFA was found to be 36% (155 out of 425) and 13% (54 out of 425) by CF. No significant difference in the LCMV seroprevalence was observed with respect to age and gender by any of the methods used. The results show that inhabitants in the area studied are clearly being exposed to LCMV and the infection of the population occurs in the first 10 years of life. Equal prevalence of IgG and especially of short-lived CF antibodies in the elderly in comparison to other age groups and children can be explained by reinfections and boosting of antibodies through permanent contact with the virus. To the best of our knowledge this study reports the first evidence of endemic LCMV in Croatia and one of the highest LCMV human prevalence reported worldwide to date. The epidemiological association between LCMV and other zoonoses which can be expected in this community as well as the etiology of summer influenza-like illness along the coastal area of Croatia has to be explored further.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Discriminating between Ixodes ticks by means of mitochondrial DNA sequences.

Ticks of the genus Ixodes have recently assumed prominence because they frequently serve as vectors of important zoonoses, including Lyme disease and babesiosis. The morphological characteristics that have been used in their identification often are ambiguous and are useful solely at a particular stage of development. Here we report the DNA sequence of the mitochondrially encoded 16S rRNA gene of nine different Ixodes ticks and an outgroup from another genus, Dermacentor. The sequences readily discriminate between these ticks. Samples of I. dammini from the northeastern and upper midwestern United States differ from southeastern I. scapularis at about 2% of the nucleotides. This difference is about half that separating other members of the I. ricinus group of species, but exceeds typical levels of intraspecific variation. Two major clades exist within the I. ricinus complex. One includes I. cookei, I. hexagonus, and I. angustus. The other includes I. persulcatus, I. pacificus, I. muris, I. ricinus, I. scapularis, and I. dammini. We conclude that mtDNA sequences are useful for unravelling the systematics of these important vectors of human disease.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Cell surface receptors for gammaretroviruses.

Evidence obtained during the last few years has greatly extended our understanding of the cell surface receptors that mediate infections of retroviruses and has provided many surprising insights. In contrast to other cell surface components such as lectins or proteoglycans that influence infections indirectly by enhancing virus adsorption onto specific cells, the true receptors induce conformational changes in the viral envelope glycoproteins that are essential for infection. One surprise is that all of the cell surface receptors for gamma-retroviruses are proteins that have multiple transmembrane (TM) sequences, compatible with their identification in known instances as transporters for important solutes. In striking contrast, almost all other animal viruses use receptors that exclusively have single TM sequences, with the sole proven exception we know of being the coreceptors used by lentiviruses. This evidence strongly suggests that virus genera have been prevented because of their previous evolutionary adaptations from switching their specificities between single-TM and multi-TM receptors. This evidence also implies that gamma-retroviruses formed by divergent evolution from a common origin millions of years ago and that individual viruses have occasionally jumped between species (zoonoses) while retaining their commitment to using the orthologous receptor of the new host. Another surprise is that many gamma-retroviruses use not just one receptor but pairs of closely related receptors as alternatives. This appears to have enhanced viral survival by severely limiting the likelihood of host escape mutations. All of the receptors used by gamma-retroviruses contain hypervariable regions that are often heavily glycosylated and that control the viral host range properties, consistent with the idea that these sequences are battlegrounds of virus-host coevolution. However, in contrast to previous assumptions, we propose that gamma-retroviruses have become adapted to recognize conserved sites that are important for the receptor's natural function and that the hypervariable sequences have been elaborated by the hosts as defense bulwarks that surround the conserved viral attachment sites. Previously, it was believed that binding to receptors directly triggers a series of conformational changes in the viral envelope glycoproteins that culminate in fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. However, new evidence suggests that gamma-retroviral association with receptors triggers an obligatory interaction or cross-talk between envelope glycoproteins on the viral surface. If this intermediate step is prevented, infection fails. Conversely, in several circumstances this cross-talk can be induced in the absence of a cell surface receptor for the virus, in which case infection can proceed efficiently. This new evidence strongly implies that the role of cell surface receptors in infections of gamma-retroviruses (and perhaps of other enveloped animal viruses) is more complex and interesting than was previously imagined. Recently, another gammaretroviral receptor with multiple transmembrane sequences was cloned. See Prassolov, Y., Zhang, D., Ivanov, D., Lohler, J., Ross, S.R., and Stocking, C. Sodium-dependent myo-inositol transporter 1 is a receptor for Mus cervicolor M813 murine leukemia virus.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Xenotransplantation: public health risks--patient vs. society in an emerging field.

Xenotransplantation is a public health concern because it has the potential to infect human recipients with zoonotic and other infectious agents that are not endemic in human populations, thereby potentially introducing new infections to the human community. From this perspective, xenotransplantation clinical trials combine a potential benefit for individual recipients with a potential risk to the human community. However, the potential for benefit also extends beyond the individual recipient to society as a whole, a fact infrequently recognized in discussions of this topic. Further, diseases neither endemic in human communities nor recognized as classic zoonoses are introduced into humans periodically through routine interactions between human and nonhuman animals. Thus, xenotransplantation is one of multiple potential routes by which infectious agents of nonhuman origin may enter human ecosystems. The intentional and controlled nature of xenotransplantation exposures enables implementation of measures to minimize associated biohazards. Development of guidelines and implementation of regulatory oversight of xenotransplantation clinical trials in most nations where such research occurs has promoted a standard level of practice in the field and markedly reduced the risk of xenotransplant-introduced infection compared to the situation in 1995.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Haemorrhagic fevers and ecological perturbations.

Hemorrhagic fever is a clinical and imprecise definition for several different diseases. Their main common point is to be zoonoses. These diseases are due to several viruses which belong to different families. The Flaviviridae have been known for the longest time. They include the Amaril virus that causes yellow fever and is transported by mosquitoes. Viruses that have come to light more recently belong to three other families: Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae, and Filoviridae. They are transmitted by rodents (hantaviruses and arenaviruses) or from unknown reservoirs (Ebola Marburg). The primary cause of most outbreaks of hemorrhagic fever viruses is ecological disruption resulting from human activities. The expansion of the world population perturbs ecosystems that were stable a few decades ago and facilitates contacts with animals carrying viruses pathogenic to humans. Another dangerous human activity is the development of hospitals with poor medical hygiene. Lassa, Crimean-Congo or Ebola outbreaks are mainly nosocomial. There are also natural environmental changes: the emergence of Sin Nombre in the U.S. resulted from heavier than usual rain and snow during spring 1993 in the Four Corners. Biological industries also present risks. In 1967, collection of organs from monkeys allowed the discovery in Marburg of a new family of viruses, the Filoviridae. Hemorrhagic fever viruses are cause for worry, and the avenues to reduce their toll are still limited.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Molecular genetic analyses of parapoxviruses pathogenic for humans.

The current members of the genus parapoxvirus are orf virus (ORFV), bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), pseudocowpoxvirus (PCPV) and parapoxvirus of red deer in New Zealand (PVNZ). BPSV and PCPV are maintained in cattle while ORFV is maintained in sheep and goats, but all three are zoonoses. Only the recently reported PVNZ has yet to be recorded as infecting humans. Tentative members of the genus are camel contagious ecthyma virus, chamois contagious ecthyma virus and sealpoxvirus. The separation of the parapoxviruses into 4 distinct groups has been based on natural host range, pathology and, more recently, on restriction endonuclease and DNA/DNA hybridisation analyses. The latter studies have shown that the parapoxviruses share extensive homology between central regions of their genomes, but much lower levels of relatedness within the genome termini. The high G + C content of parapoxvirus DNA is in contrast to most other poxviruses and suggests that a significant genetic divergence from other genera of this family has occurred. DNA sequencing of portions of the genome of ORFV, the type species of the genus, has allowed a detailed comparison with the fully sequenced genome of the orthopoxvirus, vaccinia virus (VACV). These studies have provided a genetic map of ORFV and revealed a central core of 88 kbp within which the genomic content was strikingly similar to that of VACV. This conservation is not maintained in the genome termini where insertions, deletions and translocations have occurred. The characterisation of specific ORFV genes may lead to the construction of attenuated vaccine strains in which genes such as those with the potential to interfere with the immune response of the host have been deleted. The current ORFV vaccines are living unattenuated virus and vaccination lesions produce virus which contaminates the environment in a manner similar to natural infection. The virus in scab material is relatively resistant to inactivation and this virus both perpetuates the disease in sheep and provides the most likely source of human infections. A vaccine which immunises animals without perpetuating the disease could be the best way of reducing the incidence of ORFV infection of humans. It is likely that protection against infection by ORFV is cell mediated and will require the endogenous production of relevant antigens. We have recently constructed a series of VACV recombinants each of which contains a large multigene fragment of ORFV DNA. Together the recombinants represent essentially all of the ORFV genome in an overlapping manner. Vaccination of sheep with the recombinant library provided protection against challenge with virulent ORFV. Further studies with this library may enable dominant protective antigens of ORFV to be identified and lead to their incorporation into a subunit vaccine.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Natural history of human rotavirus infection.

Rotavirus infections occur repeatedly in humans from birth to old age. Most are asymptomatic or are associated with mild enteric symptoms. Infection in young children can be accompanied by severe life-threatening diarrhea, most commonly after primary infection. Annual childhood morbidity rates for severe diarrhea are similar worldwide. Mortality rates are low in developed countries but approach 1,000,000 annually in young children in developing countries. Rotaviruses can be classified into Groups A-E according to antigenic groups on VP6, the major capsid antigen. Only Group A,B and C rotaviruses have been shown to infect humans, and most human rotavirus disease is caused by Group A viruses. These are further classified into G and P types based on identification of antigens on the outer capsid proteins VP7 and VP4 respectively. Most severe infections in young children are caused by serotypes G1-4, and during the last two decades, G1 infections appear to have predominated worldwide. In general the more densely populated countries show the most complex patterns of occurrence of serotypes. Clinical rotavirus disease can be accompanied by shedding of > 10(12) rotavirus particles/gm feces. The virus is highly infectious and appears to retain infectivity over many months. In temperate climates, disease is most common during the colder months, when it is likely that rapid spread within families and communities occurs. Nosocomial infections are frequent, and rotaviruses can become endemic within obstetric hospital nurseries for the newborn. Few (if any) human rotavirus infections appear to be zoonoses, even though Group A rotaviruses are widespread in the young of all mammalian species. However infection of humans with reassortant rotavirus strains derived from human-animal sources can occur. The extent to which this contributes to new epidemic strains within particular countries (or worldwide) remains to be determined.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1992

Epidemiologic surveys of dog and cat bites in the Lyon area, France.

The urban pet population has increased considerably in France during the last twenty years. Two main questions need to be answered regarding rabies and other bite transmitted zoonoses: What is the actual incidence rate of dog and cat bites in an urban area; and how sensitive is the animal bite reporting system? To answer these questions, four surveys were conducted in the Lyon area, France, in 1989: 1) an analysis of the consultation reports to the Pasteur Institute and of the bite reports sent by veterinarians to the local veterinary services for 1987 and 1988; 2) a survey of 10 veterinary clinics located in the Lyon area and an analysis of their bite reports for the period May 1987-April 1989; 3) a questionnaire survey to 175 clients of these veterinary clinics; 4) a street survey of a random sample of the Lyon adult population (310 questionnaires). Bite incidence rates ranged from 10/100,000 persons/year for rabies post-exposure treatments to 37.5/100,000 persons/year for reported bites. However, less than half of the bite reports from the ten veterinary clinics were submitted to the veterinary services. The surveys conducted among pet owners and the general population indicated that, overall, bites were common events (3.4%) and occurred more often in pet owners (8.6%). In 74% of the cases, victims belonged to the pet owner's family and one fourth of the accidents occurred when playing with the pet. However, 12% of the accidents resulted from apparently unprovoked aggressions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗