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PubMed1976

Relationship between conceptual judgements and stimulus dimensions among schizophrenics and normals.

Eighteen paranoid schizophrenics, 18 non-paranoid schizophrenics and 18 normal subjects were shown a set of 36 schematic drawings of human faces. The faces varied along four dimensions: nose length, chin length, distance between eyes, and forehead height. Subjects were asked to rate each face as either 'intelligent' or 'unintelligent' and then as either 'contented' or 'discontented'. The paranoid schizophrenics were less systematic than both the normals and non-paranoid schizophrenics in their use of the stimulus dimensions in the judgements, the latter two groups not significantly differing in this respect. It was also found that there were significant differences among the groups regarding the average importance given to the different physical features, the profiles for the two schizophrenic groups being flatter than that of the non-schizophrenics. The results suggested there were two aspects of consistency in dimension utilization involved in the overall group differences-between-subject and within-subject consistency. The paranoid schizophrenics displayed low within-subject consistency, the non-paranoid schizophrenics displayed a high within-subject consistency but low between-subject consistency (i.e. an idiosyncratic weighting of dimensions in their judgements), and the non-schizophrenics displayed high within- and between-subject consistency.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Social support and stress: the role of social comparison and social exchange processes.

This paper first presents four different conceptualizations of social support: social integration, satisfying relationships, perceived helpfulness and enacted support. Then, classic and contemporary social comparison theory and social exchange theory are analysed as they are two theoretical perspectives that are particularly useful in understanding social support. These perspectives are employed to explain three seemingly paradoxical phenomena in the domain of social support: (1) the fact that support sometimes has negative effects; (2) the fact that the occurrence of stress itself can sometimes decrease the availability of support resources; and (3) the phenomenon that people believe that they give more support than they receive, and that there is more support available for them than for others.

Female↗
PubMed1995

Cognitive style and personality in 12-year-old children.

Three hundred and eighty 12-year-old children were asked to rate the pupils in their class on seven personality characteristics (Humorous, Shy, Outgoing, Patient, Quiet, Lively, and Serious; part of the sample also rated two additional characteristics, Helpful and Sensible). They were also given the Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA) (Riding, 1991a) which measures an individual's position on two fundamental cognitive style dimensions; Verbal-Imagery and Wholist-Analytic. A factor analysis indicated that the seven personality characteristics could be viewed as three variables; and these were labelled as Active, Modest and Responsible. Personality characteristic ratings varied significantly as a function of Verbal-Imagery Cognitive Style. Verbalisers were more Active than Imagers, the intermediate position of Bimodal were most Modest and the Imagers were more Responsible than the Verbalisers. There was also a significant gender difference with the girls being more Modest and Responsible and the boys more Active. For the subsample, the only significant effect that was observed related to gender with the girls being rated as more Helpful and more Sensible than the boys.

Child↗
PubMed1987

Conditions for assigning blame: the impact of necessity and sufficiency.

The purpose of the experiment reported here was to examine the impact of necessary and sufficient causal conditions on assignment of blame for a negative outcome. In addition, the influence of inferential goals on the relative impact of necessity and sufficiency was investigated. Subjects read written scenarios in which the pattern of covariation between a target's behaviour and a negative outcome was systematically varied. The results indicate that subjects were able to integrate the covariation data to infer the nature of the causal condition, and utilize this information to infer the extent to which the target was the cause of, and deserving of blame for, a specific negative outcome. There were no effects due to the inferential goal factor. Implications for understanding the impact of necessary and sufficient conditions are discussed.

Female↗
PubMed1992

Judgements about victims and attackers in depicted rapes: a review.

This paper reviews the effects on subjects' judgements of a variety of factors that have been included in experimental depictions of rape. The focus is on attribution of responsibility or fault to the victim or attacker and related judgements, particularly regarding guilt and sanctions. Generally, females make more pro-victim judgements than do males, and people with non-traditional sex-role attitudes make more pro-victim judgements than do holders of more traditional views. Other factors covered are various victim characteristics, victim-attacker acquaintance, resistance, and victim attire and a range of behaviours prior to the attack. These are limits to generalization due to populations studied and methods used, and the observed effects of several factors are either minimal or inconsistent. However, some factors have reliable effects on judgements, which it is argued are explainable in terms of their link with traditional beliefs about women's rights and roles. Males have often been found to be more susceptible to these effects. In particular, it appears that if a female engages in any behaviour deemed to be 'incautious' that results in victimization then she may be perceived to be at fault, even though these behaviours would be 'legitimate' for males, and that prior romantic involvement with the attacker mitigates the perceived seriousness of, and may even be seen as supplying justification for, a sexual attack. The existence of these attitudes implies that rape may be tacitly condoned in many situations.

Aggression↗
PubMed1994

Biases in memory for and use of inconsistent beliefs in stereotyping.

Some research has suggested that level of inconsistency of information that invalidates expectancy-based stereotypes or trait labels is one of several moderating variables that determine the memorability and use of inconsistent information (e.g. Rojahn & Pettigrew, 1992). Two experiments were designed to identify variables that moderate memory for and use of counter-stereotypic social-political beliefs that were attributed to a stereotypically identified group. In Expt 1, recall was found to be inversely related to level of inconsistency. In Expt 2, location of counter-stereotypic beliefs within a list and the order of counter-stereotypic beliefs (most-to-least vs. least-to-most inconsistent) determined the form of the relationship between recall and level of inconsistency. When counter-stereotypic beliefs were presented relatively early in a list and were ordered from least-to-most inconsistent, a positive relationship obtained; otherwise, the relationship was negative. Stereotyping was less extreme when counter-stereotypic beliefs were presented early in the least-to-most inconsistent ordering. Cognitive processes that may have produced these sets of findings were discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Some tests of the distinction between attitude and perceived behavioural control.

Although perceived behavioural control has recently become a popular variable for use in predicting behaviour or intention to behave, it is far from clear that this variable is theoretically distinguishable from attitude. Consequently, we performed some tests of the distinction between attitude and perceived behavioural control. In Expt 1, using participants from an American university, the semantic differential scales that have often been used to measure attitude and perceived behavioural control were submitted to factor analyses. Consistent with the distinction, a two-factor solution resulted in the attitude and perceived behavioural control items clearly loading on different factors. Further, Expt 2 demonstrated that the attitude factor predicts behavioural beliefs and does not predict control beliefs, but the reverse is true concerning the perceived behavioural control factor. Finally, in Expts 3-5, the beliefs presumed to underlie these two variables were cluster analysed. Consistent with the distinction, and paralleling findings obtained by Trafimow & Fishbein (1995), the order in which participants wrote down their beliefs exhibited significant clustering by belief type.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Reducing the racial achievement gap: a social-psychological intervention.

Two randomized field experiments tested a social-psychological intervention designed to improve minority student performance and increase our understanding of how psychological threat mediates performance in chronically evaluative real-world environments. We expected that the risk of confirming a negative stereotype aimed at one's group could undermine academic performance in minority students by elevating their level of psychological threat. We tested whether such psychological threat could be lessened by having students reaffirm their sense of personal adequacy or "self-integrity." The intervention, a brief in-class writing assignment, significantly improved the grades of African American students and reduced the racial achievement gap by 40%. These results suggest that the racial achievement gap, a major social concern in the United States, could be ameliorated by the use of timely and targeted social-psychological interventions.

Achievement↗
PubMed1990

Resource allocation: a plea for a touch of realism.

The problem of resource allocation in health has stimulated much thought and research, in attempts to provide objective, rational methods by which necessary choices can be made. One such method was proposed in a paper in this journal. The authors argued for a utilitarian approach, which they claimed to demonstrate was acceptable to society at large. This paper argues that the evidence supporting such a claim was flawed; such a utilitarian approach is not socially acceptable, and is therefore not relevant. Rather more relevant directions for research are discussed, based on the assertion that a degree of realism is essential when considering the problems of resource allocation.

England↗
PubMed1992

Classical medicine v alternative medical practices.

Classical medicine operates in a climate of rational discourse, scientific knowledge accretion and the acceptance of ethical standards that regulate its activities. Criticism has centred on the excessive technological emphasis of modern medicine and on its social strategy aimed at defending exclusiveness and the privileges of professional status. Alternative therapeutic approaches have taken advantage of the eroded public image of medicine, offering treatments based on holistic philosophies that stress the non-rational, non-technical and non-scientific approach to the unwell, disregarding traditional diagnostic categories and concentrating on enhancing subjective comfort and well-being, but remaining oblivious to the organic substrate of disease. This leads to questionable ethics in terms of false hopes and lost opportunities for effective therapy.

Complementary Therapies↗
PubMed2000

Interpretations, perspectives and intentions in surrogate motherhood.

In this paper we examine the questions "What does it mean to be a surrogate mother?" and "What would be an appropriate perspective for a surrogate mother to have on her pregnancy?" In response to the objection that such contracts are alienating or dehumanising since they require women to suppress their evolving perspective on their pregnancies, liberal supporters of surrogate motherhood argue that the freedom to contract includes the freedom to enter a contract to bear a child for an infertile couple. After entering the contract the surrogate may not be free to interpret her pregnancy as that of a non-surrogate mother, but there is more than one appropriate way of interpreting one's pregnancy. To restrict or ban surrogacy contracts would be to prohibit women from making other particular interpretations of their pregnancies they may wish to make, requiring them to live up to a culturally constituted image of ideal motherhood. We examine three interpretations of a "surrogate pregnancy" that are implicit in the views and arguments put forward by ethicists, surrogacy agencies, and surrogate mothers themselves. We hope to show that our concern in this regard goes beyond the view that surrogacy contracts deny or suppress the natural, instinctive or conventional interpretation of pregnancy.

Adoption↗
PubMed2000

An ethical paradox: the effect of unethical conduct on medical students' values.

OBJECTIVE: To report the ethical development of medical students across four years of education at one medical school. DESIGN AND SETTING: A questionnaire was distributed to all four classes at the Wake Forest University School of Medicine during the Spring of 1996. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred and three students provided demographic information as well as information concerning their ethical development both as current medical students and future interns. MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Results were analyzed using cross-tabulations, correlations, and analysis of variance. RESULTS: Results suggested that the observation of and participation in unethical conduct may have disparaging effects on medical students' codes of ethics with 35% of the total sample (24% of first years rising to 55% of fourth years) stating that derogatory comments made by residents/attendings, either in the patient's presence or absence, were "sometimes" or "often" appropriate. However, approximately 70% of the sample contended that their personal code of ethics had not changed since beginning medical school and would not change as a resident. CONCLUSIONS: Results may represent an internal struggle that detracts from the medical school experience, both as a person and as a doctor. Our goal as educators is to alter the educational environment so that acceptance of such behaviour is not considered part of becoming a physician.

Adult↗