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PubMed1999

A comparison of faces scales for the measurement of pediatric pain: children's and parents' ratings.

Faces scales have become the most popular approach to eliciting children's self-reports of pain, although different formats are available. The present study examined: (a) the potential for bias in children's self-reported ratings of clinical pain when using scales with smiling rather than neutral 'no pain' faces; (b) levels of agreement between child and parent reports of pain using different faces scales; and (c) preferences for scales by children and parents. Participants were 75 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years undergoing venepuncture, and their parents. Following venepuncture, children and parents independently rated the child's pain using five different randomly presented faces scales and indicated which of the scales they preferred and why. Children's ratings across scales were very highly correlated; however, they rated significantly more pain when using scales with a smiling rather than a neutral 'no pain' face. Girls reported significantly greater levels of pain than boys, regardless of scale type. There were no age differences in children's pain reports. Parents' ratings across scales were also highly correlated; however, parents also had higher pain ratings using scales with smiling 'no pain' faces. The level of agreement between child and parent reports of pain was low and did not vary as a function of the scale type used; parents overestimated their children's pain using all five scales. Children and parents preferred scales that they perceived to be happy and cartoon-like. The results of this study indicate that subtle variations in the format of faces scales do influence children's and parents' ratings of pain in clinical settings.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Subject independent facial expression recognition with robust face detection using a convolutional neural network.

Reliable detection of ordinary facial expressions (e.g. smile) despite the variability among individuals as well as face appearance is an important step toward the realization of perceptual user interface with autonomous perception of persons. We describe a rule-based algorithm for robust facial expression recognition combined with robust face detection using a convolutional neural network. In this study, we address the problem of subject independence as well as translation, rotation, and scale invariance in the recognition of facial expression. The result shows reliable detection of smiles with recognition rate of 97.6% for 5600 still images of more than 10 subjects. The proposed algorithm demonstrated the ability to discriminate smiling from talking based on the saliency score obtained from voting visual cues. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first facial expression recognition model with the property of subject independence combined with robustness to variability in facial appearance.

Discrimination, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Encoding and decoding graphical chemical structures as two-dimensional (PDF417) barcodes.

A wide range of molecular representations exist today, ranging from human-readable structural diagrams over line notations such as Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN) and SMILES to several dozen computer-readable file formats. Still, to encode molecular structures in a computer-readable way for inputting structures in computer systems those formats are not the method of choice since they are not easily and faultlessly readable via optical recognition. In the present study a two-dimensional (PDF417) barcode representation of molecular structures in SMILES format is explored that enables the user to read and input molecular structures into computer systems in a fully automated fashion. A Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) based compressed version of SMILES is suggested for cases where the size of the structure exceeds the storage capacity of PDF417 barcodes. Alternatively, the compact ACS format may be employed as a structural representation. The input via barcodes is fast, practically error free due to the 2D barcodes used which employ error correction and fully automatic. A Web application interface is developed which is able to interpret these barcodes and export them as optimized 3D chemical structures. Applications of this representation range from keeping automated storage systems to Web-based tracking systems of molecular samples. The National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, employs 2D barcode encoded structures for in-house repository management, where barcodes can also be used for querying the database for similar or substructures of the query structure.

Journal Article↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A novel search engine for virtual screening of very large databases.

Virtual screening of large chemical databases using the structure of the receptor can be computationally very demanding. We present a novel strategy that combines exhaustive similarity searches directly in SMILES format with the docking of flexible ligands, whose 3D structure is generated on the fly from the SMILES representation. Our strategy makes use of the recently developed LINGO tools to extract implicit chemical information from SMILES strings and integrates LINGO similarities into a pseudo-evolutionary algorithm. The algorithm represents a combination of a fast target-independent similarity method with a slower but information richer target-focused method. A virtual search of FactorXa ligands provided 62% of the potential hits after docking only 6.5% of a database of nearly 1 million molecules. The set of solutions showed good diversity, indicating that the method shows good scaffold hopping capabilities.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1997

Selective and nonselective associations between speech segments and faces in human infants.

The role of affective correspondence between signal and outcome in associative learning was studied in 2 experiments with 4-month-olds. In Experiment 1, an infant-directed (ID) speech segment, categorized by adults as having consoling acoustic properties for infants, was either paired or unpaired with smiling or sad face reinforcers. In other groups, a sad adult-directed (AD) speech segment signaled the smiling or sad faces. Later, all speech segments were tested for their ability to increase infants' visual interest in a checkerboard. Positive summation was observed only when the consoling ID speech segment had signaled the sad face. In Experiment 2, an arousing ID speech segment signaled the smiling or sad face. Positive summation was evident in both conditions. These results show that infants sometimes selectively associate speech segments and faces. Discussion centers on the basis for the selective association.

Association Learning↗
PubMed2003

The temporal coordination of early infant communication.

The ability to coordinate expressive behaviors is crucial to the development of social and emotional communication. Coordination involves systematic sequencing of behaviors from two different modalities that have some temporal overlap. A bootstrapping procedure was used to determine whether preverbal 3- and 6-month-old infants sequence vocalizations, gazes at their mothers' faces, and facial expressions into pairs of coordinated patterns nonrandomly. Smiles and frowns were highly coordinated with vocalizations. Smiles were also coordinated with gazes at mothers' faces, which became stronger with age. Vocalizations were not coordinated with gazes at mothers' faces. These findings illustrate the manner in which infants temporally coordinate communicative actions and provide new evidence that facial expressions (particularly smiles) are central to early infant communications.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2001

Social context effects on facial activity in a negative emotional setting.

Evidence for A. J. Fridlund's (e.g.. 1994) "behavioral ecology view" of human facial expression comes primarily from studies of smiling in response to positive emotional stimuli. Smiling may be a special case because it clearly can, and often does serve merely communicative functions. The present experiment was designated (a) to assess the generalizability of social context effects to facial expressions in response to negative emotional stimuli and (b) to examine whether these effects are mediated by social motives, as suggested by the behavioral ecology view. Pairs of friends or strangers viewed film clips that elicited different degrees of sad affect, in either the same or a different room; a control group participated alone. Dependent variables included facial activity, subjective emotion, and social motives. Displays of sadness were influenced by stimulus intensity and were lower in all social conditions than in the alone condition. Unexpectedly, social context effects were also found for smiling.

Affect↗
PubMed1975

Humorous laughter in children.

This experiment examines the notion that the sharing of humor enhances overt expressive responses (laughter and smiling) and humor ratings. Independent groups of seven- to eight-year-old children listened on headphones to amusing material. They were tested alone or in dyads or triads with confederates of the same sex. In triads, duration of laughter and smiling was inversely related to the amount that confederates looked at one another; this was the case whether confederates were thought to be listening to the same or different recordings. Laughter and smiling scores support the notion that sharing the social situation is crucial in the facilitation of "humorous laughter." A theory of socially facilitated laughter is proposed which draws upon social-facilitation drive theory and the tension-reduction aspects of humor theory.

Child↗
PubMed1996

Cross-facial nerve grafting for facial reanimation: effect on normal hemiface motion.

Reinnervation of the paralyzed hemiface with a cross-facial nerve graft (CFNG) required division of facial nerve branches on the normal hemiface to serve as axon donors. There is therefore concern about whether any impairment of normal hemiface motion occurs in the postoperative period. To minimize the likelihood of donor-side impairment, donor branches are chosen from the bucco-zygomatic region which was extensive cross branching, as opposed to be the single temporal or marginal mandibular branches. This study chose to determine quantitatively if this practice does, in fact, adversely affect the normal side hemiface motion governed by these branches, viz., eye closure, pucker, and smile. Since surgical procedures near the facial nerve (such as superficial parotidectomy) may leave the patient with transient facial weakness, even in the absence of nerve transection, the hypothesis was that hemiface motion would be impaired on the donor side during the early postoperative period (first month) secondary to edema and/or neuropraxia. However, based on the clinical observation that donor-side facial motion is not demonstrably impaired late after surgery, a further hypothesis was that any early facial motion is not demonstrably impaired late after surgery, a further hypothesis was that any early facial motion impairment would return to normal by 3 months postoperatively. Seven patients underwent sural CFNG as a primary or secondary component of their facial animation procedure. Their facial motion was quantified preoperatively and in serial postoperative examinations using the Maximal Static Response Assay (MSRA) of facial motion. Careful selection of redundant bucco-zygomatic branches of the facial nerve on the normal side for CFNG did not ultimately ( > or = 3 months postoperative) impair the important motions of eye closure, smile, or pucker. Early postoperative ( < or = 1 month) weakness of the smile was seen on both X and Y axes, indicating that both the risorius and zygomatic muscles were transiently weakened. The ability to elevate the lower eyelid was unaffected at any postoperative time point. Movement of the normal hemiface did not appear to be permanently affected by CFNG when a careful choice of redundant bucco-zygomatic donor branches was made.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Responses to social and inanimate stimuli in early infancy.

The reactions of 38 infants to two social stimuli (mother and experimenter (E) smiling and talking) as well as a nonsocial stimulus (a rotating musical mobile) were observed longitudinally when they were 4-, 12-, and 20-weeks old. The durations of four responses were assessed: visual focus, smile, vocalization, and movement. By 12 weeks of age all four responses differentiated among the stimuli but not in the same way. Infants looked at the nonsocial stimulus more than they did at the social stimuli. Each of the other three responses was manifested more to the social stimuli. Infants were more active in the presence of their mothers than they were in the presence of the E, but at 20 weeks they looked at the E more and tended to smile at the E more. These results are discussed in terms of the discrepancy hypothesis.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1996

The effects of audience laughter on men's and women's responses to humor.

Forty participants (20 men and 20 women) listened individually to a recording of a radio comedy show under one of two conditions: an experimental condition, with audience laughter present, or a control condition, with laughter absent. While the participants were listening to the tape, their spontaneous responses were covertly videotaped so that the frequency of laughter and smiling could be measured. After listening to the program, the participants rated the material for funniness and enjoyment. Those participants who listened with laughter present gave significantly higher ratings of the funniness and enjoyability of the recording. Moreover, they laughed and smiled more in the experimental condition, although the score for the difference in smiling failed to reach significance. In contrast with some published studies, no differences between men and women were found--a result that is attributed to the greater ecological validity of the context and to the stimuli used in the present study.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Measuring the cost-effectiveness of a national health communication program in rural Bangladesh.

In this article we examine the cost-effectiveness of the Smiling Sun multichannel media campaign, which was undertaken in Bangladesh from 2001 to 2003 and involved a nationally broadcast television serial drama supported by radio, television, newspaper, and billboard advertisements and local promotion activities. The goal was to encourage the use of a package of family health services at NGO (nongovernmental organization) Service Delivery Program (NSDP) providers. This analysis relates the costs of the Smiling Sun campaign at the national and local level to measures of change in the use of health services, namely, antenatal care and childhood immunizations. Effectiveness is measured using data from cross-sectional surveys conducted in 2001 and 2003 in NSDP catchment areas in rural Bangladesh. The statistical approach, bivariate probit estimation, controls for nonrandom exposure to the program's media messages, advertisements, and signs. Using national-level data, we find that the Smiling Sun campaign was both effective and cost-effective, inducing higher levels of service utilization for only $0.05 per additional antenatal care (ANC) user and only $0.30 and $0.36 for each additional child vaccinated for measles and DPT3, respectively. With respect to local promotion activities, the cost per attributable behavior change was considerably higher--nearly $8 per new ANC user, $37 per new DPT3 vaccination, and $32 per new measles vaccination.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Measurement of facial muscle strength in normal subjects.

OBJECTIVES: Muscle strength is a fundamental measure of function for neuromuscular systems; however, mimetic facial muscle strength has never been recorded. The objective of the present feasibility project was to measure facial muscle strength. STUDY DESIGN: The study design was a prospective experimental trial in 10 normal subjects. Descriptive statistics, tests, and analysis of variance were used to summarize and compare data. METHODS: Subjects were selected by convenience following submission and approval of a prospectively designed protocol and consent form to the Human Studies Committee. Application of a force transducer to the central eyebrow and commissure during eyebrow raising, eyelid closing, smiling, and puckering was performed by two methods: surface adhesion method (n = 5) and direct probe application method (n = 5). Data were recorded in pounds. Three repetitions of each movement were made. RESULTS: Rank order of muscle strengths (in pounds) by the surface adhesion technique was as follows: brow, 0.758; eye, 0.549; pucker, 0.387; and smile, 0.307. By direct probe application the rank order of muscle strengths was as follows: eye, 0.880; brow, 0.773; and smile, 0.730. CONCLUSIONS: Objective measures of facial motion are crucial for quantitative investigations of preventative, therapeutic, reconstructive, and rehabilitative interventions for facial nerve and muscle lesions. Until the present, objective measures required cross-correlations with current standards that were subjective. This is the first time an actual physical measure of facial muscle function has been performed. The purpose of presenting this preliminary work is to stimulate advancement along this line of research.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Lip service for the stiff upper lip.

Lip augmentation procedures can restore volume and shape to the aging, thin upper lip, but some patients may develop problematic lip tightness. This stiff upper lip is manifested by a restricted smile and an adynamic central upper lip. We have had success in treating postreconstruction and postaugmentation stiff upper lip with a therapeutic device and treatment regimen. This therapy alleviated tightness and inability to smile. Also, the change in lip commissure-to-commissure distance in repose and when smiling improved after treatment.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Cosmetic dentistry.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Patients seeking the expertise of facial plastic surgeons for facial aesthetic improvement may also desire or benefit from dental aesthetic procedures. This paper reviews current treatment options available in cosmetic dentistry. RECENT FINDINGS: Many techniques exist to improve dental aesthetics in color, position, shape, size, alignment and overall smile appearance. Although orthodontic therapy is still an important modality for smile aesthetics, some simpler procedures can provide acceptable aesthetic results. Comparison of external dental bleaching techniques reveals similar long-term results for in-office and at-home bleaching; in-office treatments, however, may provide the benefit of faster results. Internal dental bleaching is an effective method for correcting nonvital teeth coloration. Enamel shaping via either direct tooth contouring or the application of resins or veneers to tooth surfaces can correct defects, asymmetries and shape or rotation problems. Veneers or crowns are also options to correct intrinsic dental stains not amenable to bleaching techniques. Treatments to refine gingival margins and borders are another proven beneficial cosmetic procedure. SUMMARY: A myriad of techniques exist to correct a patient's particular concerns. Correction of discoloration is usually feasible as is the improvement of a patient's smile and overall dental aesthetics.

Crowns↗
PubMed2004

Recognition of facial expression and visual P300 in schizophrenic patients: differences between paranoid type patients and non-paranoid patients.

This study compared the effects of facial affective stimuli on visual event-related potentials (ERP) in schizophrenic patients and healthy subjects using photographs of babies depicting sadness (crying face), neutrality (neutral face), and pleasure (smiling face). Visual ERP were recorded using an oddball paradigm in 32 schizophrenic patients (16 paranoid type and 16 non-paranoid patients) and 32 age-matched healthy subjects. The P300 amplitude, latency, and the subject's reaction time were recorded. The P300 amplitude when viewing a photograph of a smiling baby was the smallest registered of three photographs for healthy subjects and paranoid type patients with successively greater amplitudes for neutrality and sadness. However, the P300 amplitude was the smallest while viewing crying photographs and was the largest while viewing a smiling photograph for non-paranoid patients. These results suggest that the P300 amplitude is influenced by viewing emotionally moving facial expressions and that the effect is different for different subtypes of schizophrenia. These differences may reflect differences in information processing resulted from emotional influences caused by visual-affective stimuli.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Dismissing-avoidant pattern of attachment and mimicry reactions at different levels of information processing.

Individuals with a dismissing-avoidant pattern of attachment are assumed to repress anxiety-related signals, a disposition hypothesized to interfere with facial mimicry and emotional contagion. Further, they are assumed to have one internal working model associated with anxiety, operating out of awareness at early, automatic stages of information processing, and another positive model operating at later, cognitively controlled stages of processing. The main aim of the present investigation was to compare facial mimicry in dismissing-avoidant and non-dismissing subjects at different levels of information processing. Pictures of happy and angry faces were exposed to 61 subjects at three different exposure times (17, 56, and 2,350 ms) in order to elicit facial muscle reactions, first at automatic levels and then at a more controlled levels. Corrugator activity ("frowning muscles") represented negative emotions and zygomaticus activity ("smiling muscles") positive emotions. The dismissing-avoidant subjects scored significantly lower on emotional empathy than the non-dismissing subjects. At the automatic level the dismissing-avoidant subjects showed "normal" corrugator responses (negative emotions) upon exposure to angry faces. At the cognitively controlled level of processing (2,350 ms) a significant interaction effect was shown between Faces x Muscles x Attachment pattern. The dismissing-avoidant subjects showed no corrugator response and an increased zygomaticus response ("smiling reaction") to the angry face, whereas the non-dismissing subjects reacted with a significant mimicking reaction. The dismissing-avoidant subjects' tendency to "smiling" in response to the angry face at the controlled level (2,350 ms) may be interpreted as a repression of their earlier, automatically evoked (56 ms) negative emotional reaction.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Early channels of mother-infant communication: preterm and term infants.

The impact of prematurity on the responsiveness of mothers and their 4-month-old infants was examined across three channels of communication: attentional, vocal and affective. Log-linear models were used to determine how the behavior of one partner was conditional upon the behavior of the other during home observations of 24 preterm and 24 term infants and their mothers. Visual attention was elicited by vocalization, and the onset of infant gaze was marked by a maternal smile. Mothers and infants responded to vocalizations with vocalizations, and mothers responded to smiles with smiles. Mothers of preterm infants were particularly responsive to their infants' signals within the attentional, vocal and affective channels. Preterm infants demonstrated correspondingly heightened responsiveness within the vocal and affective channels.

Adaptation, Psychological↗