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PubMed1995

Convergence in rural-urban patterns of nuptiality and mortality: a life table update.

"Based on 1979-1981 and 1989-1991 [U.S.] vital registration and 1980 and 1990 census data, we construct increment-decrement life tables for rural and urban males and females. The analysis is centered on 1980 and 1990 and describes urban-rural differences in patterns of mortality and nuptiality by age and sex. Our research updates an earlier study that described urban-rural mortality and marital transition patterns for Tennessee, 1970. The 1980 and 1990 findings parallel the 1970 results. Rural women and men have shorter life expectancies; higher infant mortality rates; younger median ages of entry into first marriage, divorce, and widowhood; a greater proportion of their cohorts ever marrying; lower probabilities of divorce; and higher probabilities of widowhood than urban women and men. However, there was a decline in urban-rural differences from 1970-1990. These changes suggest that urbanization, technological advances in communication and transportation, and the diffusion of urban lifestyles and values may have blurred the urban-rural distinction."

Age Factors↗
PubMed1983

Urbanization and cancer: changing mortality patterns?

"Analysis of the relationship between cancer rates and urbanization for United States counties for the period 1950-54 reveals the expected urban/rural differences for many digestive, urinary and respiratory organ cancers and for female breast cancer. Similar urban/rural differences existed in many other Western countries. By 1970-75, however, urban/rural differences in the United States had substantially narrowed." It is noted that "available data do not allow formal tests of the relationship between these changes and specific etiological factors, but the data suggest that the spatial convergence is related to the changing geography of such risk factors as smoking, alcohol consumption, manufacturing, and socioeconomic status and to the diminished size and role of the white foreign-born population, as well as to such confounding factors as medical practices and population migration."

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1991

Population density and development potential in rural Zimbabwe: an assessment based on the 1969 and 1982 censuses.

"Based on 1969 and 1982 census data, this paper examines the spatial association between high rural population density and development potential in Zimbabwe and its significance for national development policy. A 1982 grid cell density map was compiled on the same geographical frame as an existing 1969 density map, yielding an intercensal density change map. A land classification map and a composite map of development constraints were rasterized on the same spatial framework and subjected to computer analysis. Areas of critically high (and generally increasing) densities showed strong spatial associations with areas of severe development constraints...."

Africa↗
PubMed1998

Indoor biofuel air pollution and respiratory health: the role of confounding factors among women in highland Guatemala.

BACKGROUND: A number of studies have reported associations between indoor biofuel air pollution in developing countries and chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD) in adults and acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) in children. Most of these studies have used indirect measures of exposure and generally dealt inadequately with confounding. More reliable, quantified information about this presumed effect is an important pre-requisite for prevention, not least because of the technical, economic and cultural barriers to achieving substantial exposure reductions in the world's poorest households, where ambient pollution levels are typically between ten and a hundred times higher than recommended standards. This study was carried out as part of a programme of research designed to inform the development of intervention studies capable of providing quantified estimates of health benefits. METHODS: The association between respiratory symptoms and the use of open fires and chimney woodstoves ('planchas'), and the distribution of confounding factors, were examined in a cross-sectional study of 340 women aged 15-45 years, living in a poor rural area in the western highlands of Guatemala. RESULTS: The prevalence of reported cough and phlegm was significantly higher for three of six symptom measures among women using open fires. Although this finding is consistent with a number of other studies, none has systematically examined the extent to which strong associations with confounding variables in these settings limit the ability of observational studies to define the effect of indoor air pollution adequately. Very strong associations (P < 0.0001) were found between the type of fire and a number of household and socioeconomic factors including the arrangement of rooms, floor type, and possession of a radio and television. The spouse's economic activity type was also significantly associated (P < 0.05). Thus, while 82% of open fire users had dirt floors and only 18% cement or tile floors, the situation was reversed for plancha users, only 16% of whom had dirt floors. CONCLUSIONS: Confounding presents a substantial problem for observational studies of indoor air pollution and health, although there is a reasonable case for believing that the observed association is causal. Intervention studies are required for stronger evidence of this association, and more importantly, to determine the size of health benefit achievable through feasible exposure reductions.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Spatio-temporal modelling of rates for the construction of disease maps.

There have been significant developments in disease mapping in the past few decades. The continual development of statistical methodology in this area is responsible for the growing popularity of disease mapping because of its potential usefulness in regional health planning, disease surveillance and intervention, and allocating health funding. Here we review the area of disease mapping where relative risks pertain to an event such as incidence or mortality over space and time. In particular we briefly discuss the use of generalized additive mixed models, an additive extension of generalized linear mixed models, for spatio-temporal analysis of disease rates. To illustrate the procedures, we present an in-depth analysis of infant mortality data in the province of British Columbia, Canada. The goals of the analysis are to produce more reliable small-area estimates of mortality rates, assess spatial patterns over time, and examine risk trends at both global (provincial) and local (local health area) levels.

British Columbia↗
PubMed2002

Monitoring ammonia in urban, inner alpine and pre-alpine ambient air.

Passive samplers were used to monitor ammonia concentrations at rural inner alpine and pre-alpine, as well as urban, sites in Austria and Bavaria. Elevated concentrations were measured both at farms (up to 36 microg NH3 m(-3)) and at urban locations (up to 28 microg NH3 m(-3)). At urban locations a linear relationship between the traffic density and the NH3 concentration was found, but there was no marked seasonal trend. The highest ammonia concentrations were measured in a traffic tunnel (up to 78 microg NH3 m(-3)). The presence of livestock breeding or small scale alpine pastures resulted in elevated concentrations at the rural sites (8.1-12 and 2.5-4.6 microg NH3 m(-3), respectively), compared to the surrounding areas (3.1 and 0.9 microg NH3 m(-3)). Agriculture related sources are usually limited either spatially or seasonally. As the emissions were moderate in our case, a rapid removal and dilution of ammonia was possible and therefore the NH3 burden was only local. Sources related to traffic are more evenly distributed both geographically and seasonally. The WHO guideline, annual average concentration of 8 microg m(-3) for the protection of vegetation, was only exceeded at farms, at the urban station with the heaviest traffic and in the Tauerntunnel.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2002

Heavy metals in aquatic bryophytes from the Ore mountains (Germany).

Concentration of the metals Ni, Cr, Co, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Ba, Al, and V as well as the macronutrients Ca, Mg, and K were measured in water and in the aquatic bryophytes Platyhypnidium riparioides, Scapania sp., and Fontinalis antipyretica sampled from streams in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains, eastern Germany). These plants, as used to evaluate the spatial distribution of elements in the examined streams, contained elevated levels of all the investigated metals except Sr. The highest levels of Cd (195 mg/kg), Cu (233 mg/kg), Zn (22500 mg/kg), Pb (595 mg/kg), and Co (140 mg/kg) seriously exceed background values. In recent years input of pollutants has decreased in the Erzgebirge area and the deposition can now be addressed as being comparable to that of rural areas without major local or regional influences. This investigation indicates that the studied aquatic mosses reflect part of the pollutant loadings released in the past in the Erzgebirge area of which remnants are still present in the environment. Two models describing the con-centrations of Fe and Zn in aquatic bryophytes in relation to concentrations of some elements in water are presented.

Bryopsida↗
PubMed1985

Overurbanization and underdevelopment in sub-Saharan Africa: a cross-national study.

"This paper discusses both the urban bias and world-system theories of overurbanization and presents a cross-national analysis of 32 African nations to test these perspectives. The analysis is divided into three parts. First, the effects of urban bias (i.e., the disparity in welfare between rural and urban areas) and economic dependence on overurbanization are examined. Next, the association between overurbanization and (1) the structure of the labor force and (2) economic growth is tested. Finally, the relationship between the structure of the labor force and economic growth is evaluated." The results indicate that "the rural-urban disparity and foreign investment facilitate overurbanization, and that an increase in level of overurbanization has a deleterious impact on both the structure of the labor force and economic growth. Furthermore, there is strong evidence indicating that an increase in service-sector employment has a negative effect on economic growth."

Africa↗