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PubMed2002

Dispelling the illusion of invulnerability: the motivations and mechanisms of resistance to persuasion.

Three studies examined the impact of a treatment designed to instill resistance to deceptive persuasive messages. Study 1 demonstrated that after the resistance treatment, ads using illegitimate authority-based appeals became less persuasive, and ads using legitimate appeals became more persuasive. In Study 2, this resistance generalized to novel exemplars, persevered over time, and appeared outside of the laboratory context. In Study 3, a procedure that dispelled participants' illusions of invulnerability to deceptive persuasion maximized resistance to such persuasion. Overall, the present studies demonstrate that attempts to confer resistance to appeals will likely be successful to the extent that they install 2 conceptual features: perceived undue manipulative intent of the source of the appeal and perceived personal vulnerability to such manipulation.

Advertising↗
PubMed2001

Training squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) to deceive: acquisition and analysis of behavior toward cooperative and competitive trainers.

Three squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) learned to reach toward a container that covered food if a cooperative trainer rewarded such reaches by giving the food. A competitive trainer kept any food found, but wrong selections by this trainer were also rewarded. The monkeys initially reached toward the baited container indiscriminately, but gradually and with the aid of color-cued containers, all 3 reliably reached "honestly" and "deceptively" in the presence of the cooperative and competitive trainers, respectively. The monkeys did not appear to take the trainers' knowledge about the location of the food into account, and deception did not occur if food was placed under the normally unbaited container. With additional containers present, monkeys misled the competitive trainer into selecting the unbaited container farthest from the baited one. Although not indicative of mental attribution, the monkeys' behavior suggests awareness of the acquired communicative function of the reaching response.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Credibility judgements of detectives: the impact of nonverbal behavior, social skills, and physical characteristics on impression formation.

Ninety-one detectives watched videofragments of 20 confederates who had been instructed either to tell the truth or to lie. After each videofragment the detectives indicated whether the confederate was lying. Although the study took place in a police context, and thus had higher ecological validity, the results strongly corresponded with those of previous studies: The accuracy rate was low (49%). Like the students in other deception studies, the detectives used the wrong cues to detect deception, and the actual situation (whether the confederates were telling the truth) did not predict suspiciousness.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Why animals lie: how dishonesty and belief can coexist in a signaling system.

We develop and apply a simple model for animal communication in which signalers can use a nontrivial frequency of deception without causing listeners to completely lose belief. This common feature of animal communication has been difficult to explain as a stable adaptive outcome of the options and payoffs intrinsic to signaling interactions. Our theory is based on two realistic assumptions. (1) Signals are "overheard" by several listeners or listener types with different payoffs. The signaler may then benefit from using incomplete honesty to elicit different responses from different listener types, such as attracting potential mates while simultaneously deterring competitors. (2) Signaler and listener strategies change dynamically in response to current payoffs for different behaviors. The dynamic equations can be interpreted as describing learning and behavior change by individuals or evolution across generations. We explain how our dynamic model differs from other solution concepts from classical and evolutionary game theory and how it relates to general models for frequency-dependent phenotype dynamics. We illustrate the theory with several applications where deceptive signaling occurs readily in our framework, including bluffing competitors for potential mates or territories. We suggest future theoretical directions to make the models more general and propose some possible experimental tests.

Animal Communication↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Children's perseverative appearance-reality errors are related to emerging language skills.

Two experiments explored the communicative bases of preschoolers' object appearance-reality (AR) errors. In Experiment 1, 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds (N = 36) completed the AR test (with high- and low-deceptive objects), a control test with the same discourse structure but nondeceptive stimuli, and stimulus naming and memory tests. AR performance correlated positively with control (discourse) and naming test performance. Object deceptiveness had little effect. In Experiment 2, 3- and 4-year-olds (N = 64) completed AR tests that experimentally varied question phrasing and use of exemplar objects. Children also completed memory, vocabulary, and control tests (of verbal perseveration). AR performance variance was predicted by a composite perseveration score from three non-AR tasks, vocabulary, and exemplars. The results indicate that the discourse structure of the AR test elicits a perseverative tendency that is mediated by children's verbal knowledge.

Child↗
PubMed1985

What the subjects have to say.

It is argued that if professional codes of ethics are to be effective in preventing unethical actions by psychologists, they should be partly based upon empirical research documenting how participants in our research feel about our research procedures. If, for instance, participants do not object to deception and if being deceived does not make them regard psychological research in a negative light, on what grounds would it be regarded as unethical to deceive them? In order to make informed decisions about the likely consequences of our research procedures upon participants, we need to rest such decisions upon research findings rather than upon professional prejudgements. An exploratory experiment is described which examines the effects of deception, physical discomfort (stress), and experimenter considerateness upon subjects' reactions both to the experiment in which they participated and upon their feelings about psychological research in general. Whilst the manipulations did affect subjects' reactions somewhat adversely, on the whole their reactions were positive. In addition, a direct comparison is made between the reactions of subjects in a passive role-playing condition (PRPs) and those who actually took part, to see if the reactions of the PRPs could be a useful guide to those of actual participants. If so, then investigators concerned about the possible adverse effects of their research upon participants could use the reactions of PRPs as one criterion by which to judge the ethicality of their proposed research. It was found that PRPs overestimate the degree of stress involved, but are otherwise reasonably accurate in predicting how actual participants feel. Implications of the results for our ethical codes are discussed.

Attitude↗
PubMed2006

The internet as psychological laboratory.

This chapter reviews studies published in American Psychological Association (APA) journals from 2003-2004 and additional studies (received in response to listserv requests) that used the Internet to collect data (N=121 total studies). Specific examples of three kinds of Web-based research are reviewed: (a) translational (established methods and research questions are adapted to the Web), (b) phenomenological (behavior on the Web is the focus of study), and (c) novel (methodologically innovations unique to Web-based research). Among other findings, our review indicated that 21% of APA journals published at least one article that reported on Web-based research, most Web-based psychological research uses experimental methods, a surprising number use college student samples, and deception in Web-based research is not uncommon. Strengths and weaknesses of Web-based psychological research in general, and our sample of studies in particular, are reviewed with special attention to possible concerns about sampling and the use of deception.

Creativity↗
PubMed2004

Social desirability and self-reports: testing models of socially desirable responding.

The present research investigated the cognitive processes involved in responding to self-report items under varying conditions of social desirability. Participants in three experiments judged the extent to which a set of items (personality traits in Experiments 1 and 2; behaviors in Experiment 3) described them under instructions that either increased or decreased concerns with social desirability. Under most conditions, instructions that produced the greatest concern with social desirability resulted in the longest response times. This finding is consistent with the view that social desirability operates as an editing process; participants retrieve the requested information and then evaluate it before responding. There was also some evidence for individual differences in social desirability; participants scoring high on the trait of self-deception were generally faster at making these judgments than were participants scoring low on self-deception.

Deception↗
PubMed2002

Comparing continuous and dichotomous scoring of the balanced inventory of desirable responding.

The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR; Paulhus, 1994) is a widely used instrument to measure the 2 components of social desirability: self-deceptive enhancement and impression management. With respect to scoring of the BIDR, Paulhus (1994) authorized 2 methods, namely continuous scoring (all answers on the continuous answer scale are counted) and dichotomous scoring (only extreme answers are counted). In this article, we report 3 studies with student samples, and continuous and dichotomous scoring of BIDR subscales are compared with respect to reliability, convergent validity, sensitivity to instructional variations, and correlations with personality. Across studies, the scores from continuous scoring (continuous scores) showed higher Cronbach's alphas than those from dichotomous scoring (dichotomous scores). Moreover, continuous scores showed higher convergent correlations with other measures of social desirability and more consistent effects with self-presentation instructions (fake-good vs. fake-bad instructions). Finally, continuous self-deceptive enhancement scores showed higher correlations with those traits of the Five-factor model for which substantial correlations were expected (i.e., Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness). Consequently, these findings indicate that continuous scoring may be preferable to dichotomous scoring when assessing socially desirable responding with the BIDR.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The cloning controversy.

Stem cell research has captured the imagination of many, including the scientific and medical community. But the medical community received a wake-up call early this year when a well-known researcher publicly confessed to deception. While the core question relates to honesty and integrity, it is equally necessary to examine the system that made such deception possible.

Cloning, Organism↗
PubMed2004

Improving accuracy of veracity judgment through cue training.

The ability to make judgments of veracity was investigated to see if training individuals on visual, vocal, or verbal content cues of deception would increase their ability to judge whether a message was truthful. The overall rate of accuracy of judging veracity was significantly greater for subjects trained on verbal content cues. More specifically, for detecting truthful messages, subjects trained on verbal content cues had significantly greater accuracy than subjects who received no cue training, whereas for detecting deceptive messages, there were no significant differences in accuracy among conditions.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Lying and deceiving--moral choice in public and private life.

Suppose that there are good or morally defensible reasons for not responding truthfully to a question or request for information. Is a lie or a deception better as a means to avoid telling the truth? There are many situations in public and private life in which the answer to this question would serve as a useful moral guide, for instance, clinical situations involving dying patients, educational situations, involving young children and personal situations involving close friends. Intuitively, we feel that there is a moral asymmetry in favor of deceiving over lying. However, doubts have been cast on such intuition. The aim of this paper is to bolster this intuition. It will be argued that the claim of moral asymmetry in favor of deception can be supported on a consideration of the different degrees of expectation involved in communicative ethics. Two other objections to the claim of asymmetry will also be considered.

Communication↗
PubMed2000

[Anton Chekhov--a self-deceiver?].

The Russian author and doctor Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) died from tuberculosis in 1904. He had his first haemoptysis in 1884. In spite of continuing symptoms he did not let himself be examined by colleagues until he had a severe haemorrhage in 1897. He was then hospitalized, and extensive bilateral pulmonary tuberculosis was diagnosed. Even after that, he did not take his disease seriously. His attitude has been taken as an example of a doctor's self-deception. Almost 4,500 of Chekhov's letters has been published. In this article, the letters and contemporary memorial literature are used to illustrate the development of his disease and his ambivalence towards it. His self-deception was not that massive; there is a strain of uneasiness in his reports of his symptoms.

Deception↗
PubMed1999

Two arguments for 'covert methods' in social research.

In some 'covert' participant-observation studies, social researchers defend their omission of informed consent on the basis of a need to protect subjects from apprehension, nervousness, or even criminal prosecution. In other instances, researchers contend that deception is rampant in society, and that their methods are no more immoral than the behaviour that ordinarily prevails. These defenses of covert methods fail to appreciate the range of risks that may be involved, and in the latter case, fail to show that these methods are in fact morally indistinguishable from the 'deception' that people typically engage in. Ultimately, these proposed defenses of covert methods succeed only in arousing greater concern about informed consent in social research, and the researcher's privilege in bypassing it.

Deception↗
PubMed1997

Teaching medical students to lie. The disturbing contradiction: medical ideals and the resident-selection process.

Although truthfulness and honesty have long been considered fundamental values within the medical profession, lying and deception have become standard practices within medicine's resident-selection process. Dishonesty is incorporated into and encouraged during this process, and there is little need for medical students and other participants to reflect upon their actions. This essay, which won the $1500 first prize in CMAJs 1996 Logie Medical Ethics Essay Contest, looks at the serious consequences of this lying and deception. Dr. Tara Young discusses the moral dilemma applicants for residencies face during their final year of undergraduate training.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed1994

Placebo pain medication. Ethical and practical considerations.

The placebo effect on pain is a complex phenomenon. The unconsented use of placebo pain medication, however, raises concerns given the risks both to patient trust and to the medical profession's reputation in condoning deception, the inherent distastefulness of deception, the misuse of placebos that occurs, and the fact that the information obtained is often of negligible value. The main justification given for using placebos is based on the assumption that they are effective and beneficial to patients. We argue that placebo pain medication should be prescribed to patients only with their informed consent in scientifically rigorous single-patient studies. The results of such trials would constitute a particularly useful way of resolving uncertainty in the treatment of patients whose pain is poorly controlled.

Beneficence↗
PubMed2005

Quit and Win contests for smoking cessation.

BACKGROUND: Quit and Win contests were developed in the 1980s by the Minnesota Heart Health Program, and have been widely used since then as a population-based smoking cessation intervention at local, national and international level. Since 1994 an international contest has been held every two years in as many as 80 countries (2002). OBJECTIVES: To determine whether quit and win contests can deliver higher long-term quit rates than baseline community quit rates. To assess the impact of such programmes, we considered both the quit rates achieved by participants, and the population impact, which takes into account the proportion of the target population entering the contest. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group specialized register, with additional searches of MEDLINE (January 1966 to September 2004), EMBASE (180 to 2004/8), CINAHL (1982 to 2004/8) and PsycINFO (1872 to 2004/6). Search terms included competition*, quit and win, quit to win, contest*, prize*. SELECTION CRITERIA: We considered randomized controlled trials, allocating individuals or communities to experimental or control conditions. We also considered controlled studies with baseline and post-intervention measures. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Data were extracted by one author and checked by the second. We contacted study authors for additional data where necessary. The main outcome measure was abstinence from smoking for at least six months from the start of the intervention. We used the most rigorous definition of abstinence in each trial, and biochemically validated rates where available. We decided against performing a meta-analysis, because of the heterogeneity of the included studies, and the small number of scientifically valid studies. MAIN RESULTS: Four studies met our inclusion criteria. Three demonstrated significantly higher quit rates (8% to 20%) for the quit and win group than for the control group at the 12-month assessment. However, the population impact measure, where available, suggests that the effect of contests on community prevalence of smoking is small, with fewer than one in 500 smokers quitting because of the contest. Levels of deception, where they could be quantified, were high. Although surveys suggest that international quit and win contests may be effective, especially in developing countries, the lack of controlled studies precludes any firm conclusions from this review. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Quit and win contests at local and regional level appear to deliver quit rates above baseline community rates, although the population impact of the contests seems to be relatively low. Contests may be subject to levels of deception which could compromise the validity of the intervention. International contests may prove to be an effective mechanism, particularly in developing countries, but a lack of well-designed comparative studies precludes any firm conclusions.

Awards and Prizes↗
PubMed2006

Adults' ability to detect children's lying.

Adults are poor deception detectors when examining lies told by adults, on average. However, there are some adults who are better at detecting lies than others. Children learn to lie at a very young age, a behavior that is socialized by parents. Yet, less is known about the ability to detect children's lies, particularly with regard to individual differences in the ability to detect this deception. The current study explored adult raters' ability to discern honesty in children who lied or told the truth about committing a misdeed. Results showed that adults are no better at detecting children's lies than they are with adult lies. In particular, adults were very poor at identifying children's honest statements. However, individual differences did emerge, suggesting that the ability to detect lying in children might be facilitated by relevant experience working with children. Implications for legal and mental health contexts are discussed.

Adult↗