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PubMed2000

The functions of aggression by male teenagers.

A selectionist theory states that violence by males toward male peers originally served specific functions and violence to female peers served others. Differences in self-reported victimization and perpetration in studies of 1.452 high school students were hypothesized. In Study 1, male-to-male aggression was reported to be more prevalent than male-to-female aggression. For male-to-male aggression, perpetrator reports agreed with or exceeded victim reports, and victims were more often strangers than close friends, In contrast, for male-to-female aggression, there were consistently fewer reports from perpetrators than from victims, and victims were less often strangers than girlfriends. Study 2 obtained similar findings for reported frequency, number of victims and perpetrators, and sexual aggression. Study 3 showed that girls' aggression contrasted with that by boys with respect to intra- versus intersex aggression and perpetrator victim agreement.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Low-status monkeys "play dumb" when learning in mixed social groups.

Many primates, including humans, live in complex hierarchical societies where social context and status affect daily life. Nevertheless, primate learning studies typically test single animals in limited laboratory settings where the important effects of social interactions and relationships cannot be studied. To investigate the impact of sociality on associative learning, we compared the individual performances of group-tested rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) across various social contexts. We used a traditional discrimination paradigm that measures an animal's ability to form associations between cues and the obtaining of food in choice situations; but we adapted the task for group testing. After training a 55-member colony to separate on command into two subgroups, composed of either high- or low-status families, we exposed animals to two color discrimination problems, one with all monkeys present (combined condition), the other in their "dominant" and "subordinate" cohorts (split condition). Next, we manipulated learning history by testing animals on the same problems, but with the social contexts reversed. Monkeys from dominant families excelled in all conditions, but subordinates performed well in the split condition only, regardless of learning history. Subordinate animals had learned the associations, but expressed their knowledge only when segregated from higher-ranking animals. Because aggressive behavior was rare, performance deficits probably reflected voluntary inhibition. This experimental evidence of rank-related, social modulation of performance calls for greater consideration of social factors when assessing learning and may also have relevance for the evaluation of human scholastic achievement.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Jóge Kankei: a key concept for an understanding of Japanese-American achievement.

Jóge Kankei, or an emphasis on superior-inferior relationships, refers to the pervasive concern with ranking in Japanese society. This concept is associated with achievement motivation in that it is related to socialization practices that create in the individual a heightened sensitivity to the opinions of significant others. In this paper, the pervasive concern with ranking and the sensitivity to the opinions of others is first used as a conceptual tool to explain the alleged paradoxical behavior of the Japanese at various times in their history, and is then used as the basis of a study aimed at understanding the rapid acculturation of the Japanese Americans. The study is based upon interviews with 234 Issei (first generation, born in Japan), 241 Nisei (second generation, born of Issei parents), and 372 Sansei (third generation, born of Nisei parents). Additionally, these three groups were administered several tests and questionnaires designed to measure acculturation and the retention of Japanese values.

Acculturation↗
PubMed2000

Inbreeding avoidance and reproductive skew in a cooperative mammal.

In animal social groups, socially subordinate individuals frequently show low reproductive success or completely fail to breed. This suppression of subordinate reproduction is currently typically attributed to control by dominant individuals. However, subordinates in cooperative groups often lack access to unrelated mates, and an alternative possibility is that their reproduction is limited by inbreeding avoidance. Using the eusocial Damaraland mole-rat Cryptomys damarensis, this paper provides the first experimental evidence, to our knowledge, for this explanation. Subordinate, non-breeding female mole-rats were given access to unrelated mates while remaining in the presence of dominant females, and many became reproductively active soon after unrelated males were introduced. Inbreeding avoidance and the availability of unrelated mates provides a plausible and untested explanation for variation in reproductive skew across animal societies.

Aggression↗
PubMed1999

Interpersonal processes: the interplay of cognitive, motivational, and behavioral activities in social interaction.

This analytic review is concerned with the interpersonal processes, and the characteristics of situations and persons that influence them, that lead to the confirmation and disconfirmation of expectations in the course of social interaction. We examine the steps in the chain of events by which the expectations of one person guide and direct the dynamics of social interaction such that the behavior of the target of those expectations comes to confirm or disconfirm those expectations. We further inquire into the motivational and structural foundations of confirmation and disconfirmation in social interaction, using these inquiries to address frequently asked, but rarely answered, questions about expectations and social interaction. Finally, we argue that investigations of expectations in social interaction provide a paradigm for more general theoretical and empirical considerations of interpersonal processes and social relationships.

Causality↗
PubMed2003

Being bullied what an insight.

Bullying and harassment have occupied a prominent position in NATN workshops and publications recently. Challenging Behaviours in the Perioperative Environment identifies practices that fall within the definition of these socially and legally unacceptable activities, and provides advice and guidance to victims and those who use bullying or violent behaviours. In this article, the author draws on her own experience of being a victim and provides advice on how to identify and deal with bullying.

Dominance-Subordination↗
PubMed2001

Enhanced cortical extracellular levels of cholecystokinin-like material in a model of anticipation of social defeat in the rat.

The involvement of cholecystokinin (CCK) in the mechanisms of stress and/or anxiety was assessed by in vivo microdialysis in rats subjected to a social stress paradigm. During the initial 30 min period of each conditioning session, a male Sprague Dawley rat (intruder) was placed in a protective cage inside the cage of a male Tryon Maze Dull rat (resident), allowing unrestricted visual, olfactory, and auditory contacts but precluding close physical contact between them. During the following 15 min period, both the protective cage and the resident were removed (nondefeated intruders) or only the protective cage was removed allowing the resident to attack the intruder (defeated rats). This procedure was repeated once daily for 4 d. On the fifth day, a guide cannula was implanted into the prefrontal cortex of intruders. During a single 30 min test session, performed 4 d later, intruders were subjected to only the 30 min protected confrontation to the resident. Anxiety-like behavior (immobility, ultrasonic vocalizations, and defensive postures), associated with an increase (approximately +100% above baseline) in cortical outflow of CCK-like material (CCKLM), were observed in defeated intruders. Pretreatment with diazepam (5 mg/kg, i.p.), but not buspirone (0.5-2 mg/kg, i.p.), prevented both the anxiety-related behavior and CCKLM overflow. The selective CCK-B receptor antagonist CI-988 (2 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced the anxiety-like behavior without affecting the increase in CCKLM outflow. These data indicate that anticipation of social defeat induces a marked activation of cortical CCKergic neurons associated with anxiety-related behaviors in rats.

Aggression↗
PubMed1984

Animal models of depression: an overview.

Although animal models cannot replicate human psychopathology in every detail, they should properly be conceived as experimental systems in which selected and specific questions can be investigated in ways impossible to do in humans. In considering the general kinds of animal models, distinctions must be drawn among those designed to simulate specific signs or symptoms, those designed to test a specific etiological theory, those designed to study underlying behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms, and those whose principal purpose is to permit pre-clinical drug evaluation. If, for example, drug evaluation is the first concern, the empirical validity of the model in predicting the therapeutic efficacy of drugs is primary, whereas the mechanisms responsible for inducing the syndrome, and behavioral similarity issues become secondary. The available models of depression are reviewed in the light of their specific advantages and limitations, including those induced pharmacologically, maternal and peer separation, learned helplessness, chronic stress, changes in dominance hierarchy, intra-cranial self-stimulation, conditioned motionlessness and behavioral despair models. Since multiple variables are involved in the etiology of depressions, animal models offer the possibility of evaluating their main effects and interactions in a controlled prospective manner. While caution is required in cross-species reasoning, there are nevertheless guidelines, and the continuing development of a comparative approach in Psychiatry has great potential.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Reproductive behaviour of wild chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania.

(1) The reproductive behaviour of chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania, was studied for 16 months and additional information came from 19 years of demographic data collected by Dr Jane Goodall and members of the Gombe Stream Research Centre. (2) The mating system of the Gombe chimpanzees comprises 3 mating patterns: (a) opportunistic, non-competitive mating, when an oestrous female may be mated by all the males in the group; (b) possessiveness, when a male forms a special short-term relationship with an oestrous female and may prevent lower ranking males from copulating with her; and (c) consortships, when a male and a female leave the group and remain alone, actively avoiding other chimpanzees. While males took the initiative in possessive behaviour and consortships, females had to co-operate for a successful relationship to develop. (3) Data from 14 conceptions indicated that the majority of females (9) became pregnant while participating in the restrictive mating patterns, possessiveness and consorting. Adult males showed differential frequencies of involvement in the restrictive mating patterns. The following male characteristics showed significant, positive correlations with participation in the restrictive patterns: (a) the amount of time spent in the same group as oestrous females, (b) the proportion of that time spent grooming oestrous females, and (c) the frequency with which males shared food with females. Dominance ranks of the adult males showed no consistent correlation with involvement in the restrictive patterns, but it was clear that the most dominant male did gain an advantage. He was the only male able to monopolize oestrous females by showing possessiveness. (4) Developmental and demographic data from observations for 19 years show that female chimpanzees have a very limited reproductive potential. Females reached menarche at about 11 years of age but this was followed by a period of adolescent sterility of median length 26 months. Each birth, if the infant survived, was followed by a long period of lactational amenorrhoea of median duration 42 months. The mean inter-birth interval of the Gombe chimpanzees was 5 years 8 months. Thus, the theoretical lifetime reproductive potential of females is 5-6 offspring who survive to weaning. Data on achieved reproductive success showed that females had a median of 3 births in their lifetime, with only 2 offspring surviving to reproductive age.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Chronic social stress in a changing dietary environment.

The human population has slowly transformed from the "hunter-gatherer" period to the current environment of high energy consumption, minimal physical activity and a lifestyle that includes stress and anxiety. Modeling the current environment in the laboratory can help to elucidate mechanisms responsible for the development of obesity, diabetes and, ultimately, the metabolic syndrome. Using the visible burrow system (VBS) model of social stress we have begun to examine the short- and long-term consequences of chronic social stress on energy homeostasis. We demonstrated that social stress has significant effects on body weight and body composition such that subordinate rats progressively develop characteristics of obesity and have additionally determined that this occurs, in part, through changes in food intake amount and behavior. Changes in body weight and body composition are similar or greater when animals are maintained on a high fat diet. These data suggest that consumption of a high-fat diet during social stress in the VBS, while it does not appear to affect development of a social hierarchy, enhances the effect that chronic stress has on body composition and may be more representative of what happens in humans in modern society where the typical diet has progressively moved toward higher calorie, high-fat foods.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

"Sex-role preference" as an explanatory variable in homosexual behavior.

Sex-role preference is an important neglected variable in statistically controlled studies of homosexual behavior. This variable must accompany controls for degree of psychopathology of respondents and degree of heterosexual and homosexual behavior experienced by respondents. Cross-cultural differences exist. Mexican males have rigidly defined insertor-insertee roles, with earlier life events serving as predictors of these sex-role preferences. Greece is comparable to Mexico. In Turkey, stigmatization accompanies passive homosexuality. Role playing may be age graded, as in the Southwest Pacific. In lower socioeconomic classes of the United States, sex roles for homosexual males are more stereo-typically and unequivocably defined. Chicanos generally have strong sex-role preferences when involved in homosexual encounters; their attitude is similar to that found in Mexico. Among middle-class Anglo-American males, few or no sex-role feelings are associated with types of sex acts by most homosexually behaving males. This may be related to a focus on oral-genital rather than anal sex acts. The sharply dichotomized gender roles and the cultural formulation linking effeminacy and homosexuality appear to provide the necessary conditions for the development of sex-role preferences in many societies.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Social play with an unfamiliar group in weanling rats (Rattus norvegicus).

Early signs of aggressive behavior toward an intruder were examined in Sprague-Dawley rats. The interactions between groups of four 24-day-old pups (2 males, 2 females) and an unfamiliar male pup from another litter were observed. Some patterns of social play were asymmetric. Compared to the playmate from the group, the unfamiliar pup was most likely to be underneath the other rats, either during play fighting or by crawling under a playmate. The single pup was most frequently involved in the following behaviors: on top (One animal climbs on top of another animal placing its forepaws on the second animal.), grooming, or crawling under a playmate. The effects of relative birth weight, ambient temperature during the lactation period, relative body weight, and relative body temperature during the observation period were studied. Results show that pups born and raised in a warm environment interacted socially more than pups raised in a colder environment. Pups lighter than the mean body weight of playmates tended to use submissive behaviors more than relatively heavier pups. Relatively heavy pups tended to use play behaviors that might be considered more aggressive during the interaction. The results suggest that under appropriate conditions, early evidence for dominance, i.e., asymmetry can be revealed.

Animals↗