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PubMed1999

Influence of pattern of drinking on cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular risk factors--a review.

There is an established inverse relationship between the regular light consumption of alcohol (5-10 g/day) and the incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD). This association has several biologically plausible mechanisms with dose-dependent effects of alcohol to increase HDL cholesterol, lower plasma fibrinogen and inhibit platelet aggregation. However, such a protective effect against atheroma cannot be considered in isolation from known adverse effects on blood pressure and triglycerides or possible detrimental effects of episodic or binge drinking on several other cardiovascular end-points and risk factors. In subjects with pre-existing CAD, an alcoholic binge can increase both silent myocardial ischaemia and angina. During withdrawal following binge drinking, marked fluctuations in blood pressure together with heightened platelet activation and adverse changes in the balance of fibrinolytic factors, may offer an explanation for the reported association between episodic heavy drinking and ischaemic stroke. This has been seen particularly in young males and extends further to an increase in both subarachnoid haemorrhage and intracerebral haemorrhage after binge drinking. Intervention studies in man have shown acute increases in blood pressure in men who drink predominantly at weekends, compared to longer-term pressor effects in regular daily drinkers. We have been unable, however, to reproduce the finding of unfavourable effects of binge drinking on the lipid profile that have been reported in animal studies and man. Binge drinking may also induce cerebrovascular spasm or cause both ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias, especially atrial fibrillation. Alcohol-induced arrhythmia has been postulated as the basis for alcohol-related sudden coronary death in those subjects with pre-existing CAD. Hence, further exploration of any protective association of alcohol against CAD needs to carefully consider the implications of pattern of drinking for the relationship. The modulating influences of co-timing of drinking with meals, cigarette smoking or illicit drug use also need to be evaluated. Without such vital information, public health advice on alcohol and CAD will be limited in its scope and potentially flawed in its impact.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2002

Effects of paternal drinking, conduct disorder and childhood home environment on the development of alcohol use disorders in a Thai population.

AIMS: To identify influences on the development of alcohol use disorders in a Thai population, particularly parental drinking and childhood environment. DESIGN: Case-control study. SETTING: A university hospital, a regional hospital and a community hospital in southern Thailand. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-one alcohol-dependents and 77 hazardous/harmful drinkers were recruited as cases and 144 non- or infrequent drinkers as controls. MEASUREMENTS: Data on parental drinking, family demographic characteristics, family activities, parental disciplinary practice, early religious life and conduct disorder were obtained using a structured interview questionnaire. The main outcome measure was the subject's classification as alcohol-dependent, hazardous/harmful drinker or non-/infrequent drinker. FINDINGS: A significant relationship was found between having a drinking father and the occurrence of hazardous/harmful drinking or alcohol dependence in the subjects. Childhood factors (conduct disorder and having been a temple boy, relative probability ratios, RPRs and 95% CI: 6.39, 2.81-14.55 and 2.21, 1.19-4.08, respectively) also significantly predicted alcohol dependence, while perceived poverty and ethnic alienation was reported less frequently by hazardous/harmful drinkers and alcohol-dependents (RPRs and 95% CIs=0.34, 0.19-0.62 and 0.59, 0.38-0.93, respectively) than the controls. The relative probability ratio for the effect of the father's infrequent drinking on the son's alcohol dependence was 2.92 (95% CI=1.42-6.02) and for the father's heavy or dependent drinking 2.84 (95% CI=1.31-6.15). CONCLUSIONS: Being exposed to a light-drinking father increases the risk of a son's alcohol use disorders exhibited either as hazardous-harmful or dependent drinking. However, exposure to a heavy- or dependent-drinking father is associated more uniquely with an increased risk of his son being alcohol-dependent. The extent to which this is seen in other cultures is worthy of exploration.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Trajectories of drinking from 18 to 26 years: identification and prediction.

OBJECTIVE: To identify developmental trajectories of drinking between the ages of 18 and 26 years and to identify variables, amenable to policy influence, which predict these trajectories. DESIGN: Longitudinal data were analysed using latent class mixture modelling. SETTING: Participants were interviewed in a central location. PARTICIPANTS: Provincial city birth cohort, cross-national studies suggest findings are generalizable to other similar market economies. MEASUREMENTS: The frequency of drinking over the past year and the typical quantity consumed per drinking occasion were computed from five location-specific questions. Measures used to predict membership of trajectory groups were ease of access to alcohol, drinking on licensed premises, response to alcohol advertising, educational achievement, parental consumption, age of onset of regular drinking and living arrangements. RESULTS: Three trajectories of quantities consumed showed reduced consumption after age 21 but one trajectory showed marked increases. Three trajectories of frequency of drinking increased or remained stable over time. Access to licensed premises at age 18 had the most significant impact on membership of the trajectory groups and educational achievement had a significant impact on membership of the heavier quantity trajectory groups. Parental alcohol consumption, access to alcohol at 15 years, liking for alcohol advertising, living arrangement and age of onset of regular drinking also influenced trajectory membership. CONCLUSIONS: Quantity and frequency of drinking in adolescence and early adulthood had different trajectories. Membership of heavier drinking groups was affected by environmental influences which are subject to policy change, particularly that of earlier access to licensed premises. In a small group high-quantity consumption did not decrease at age 26.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Impact of tea drinking on iron status in the UK: a review.

BACKGROUND: The aims of this review are (1) to evaluate the literature on the likely impact of tea drinking on the iron status of different groups within the UK population and (2) to formulate targeted and evidence based advice on tea drinking in the context of iron nutrition in different groups of people. METHOD: A literature search identified 35 references specific to the effects of black tea on iron absorption and iron nutrition plus one recent review article. Each study was assessed in terms of methodogical quality and relevance to the tea drinking patterns of the UK population. RESULTS: There is clear evidence to show that tea drinking limits the absorption of nonhaem iron. However, there are few studies which have assessed the influence of tea drinking on indicators of iron status. There are no intervention studies and the conclusions reported in this review are based on 12 observational studies mostly from other countries. These studies have reported either significant negative correlations between tea drinking and blood indicators of iron status or more cases of anemia in tea drinkers compared with nontea drinkers. Many of the studies reviewed report additional relationships between iron status indices and other factors (both dietary and nondietary), highlighting the complexity of influences on iron absorption and iron status. CONCLUSION: From the available evidence there is no need to advise any restriction on tea drinking in healthy people with no risk of iron deficiency. In groups at risk of iron deficiency the advice should be to drink tea between meals and to wait at least 1 h after eating before drinking tea.

Anemia, Iron-Deficiency↗
PubMed2003

Drinking practices and other health-related behaviors among adolescents of São Paulo City, Brazil.

PURPOSE: (a) detect possible demographic and behavioral differences among young episodic heavy drinkers and other young drinkers; (b) investigate the association of youth drinking patterns with other health-compromising behaviors. METHODS: The data presented are part of a health behavior survey, which used a modified version of the Youth Health Risk Behavior Survey (YHRBS) questionnaire. Students from public (n = 993) and private schools (n = 815), from 7th to 11th grades were investigated in São Paulo city. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were employed to investigate the association among different drinking practices and the various health-compromising behaviors, controlling for age group, gender, and school system. Odds Ratios (OR) and their 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) were calculated. Episodic Heavy Drinking was defined as having five or more drinks in a 2-hour interval, at least once in the last 30 days. RESULTS: Episodic Heavy Drinkers (EHDs) tend to be older and males and prefer to drink with friends at commercial facilities instead of drinking with their relatives at home. EHDs also reported higher percentages of adverse consequences, such as physical fights, accidents, and school absenteism after drinking. EHDs are more likely to engage in other high-risk behaviors. In the public schools, they were more likely to carry guns (OR = 17.0; CI = 3.9-74.8), get involved in physical fights (OR = 8.9; CI = 4.4-18.0), attempt suicide (OR = 4.2; CI = 2.0-8.7), and use inhalants (OR = 2.7; CI = 1.3-5.7) than abstainers. They are also more likely to use marijuana (OR = 4.7; CI = 2.2-9.9) and smoke cigarettes (OR = 5.3; CI = 2.7-10.4) than moderate drinkers. The results were similar for private schools, with even higher ratios of inhalant use (OR = 15.2; CI = 6.2-37.1), when EHDs were compared with abstainers and cigarette (OR = 64.5; CI = 8.6-481.0) and marijuana use (OR = 6.5; CI = 4.3-9.7), when EHDs were compared with moderate drinkers. CONCLUSIONS: EHDs display different drinking habits than other adolescents who drink. Also, they are at increased risk for a range of health-compromising behaviors, when compared with both abstainers and moderate drinkers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Average volume of alcohol consumption, patterns of drinking, and all-cause mortality: results from the US National Alcohol Survey.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of an average volume of alcohol consumption and drinking patterns on all-cause mortality. The sample (n = 5,072) was drawn from the 1984 National Alcohol Survey, representative of the US population living in households. Follow-up time was until the end of 1995, with 532 people deceased during this period. The authors found a significant influence of drinking alcohol on mortality with a J-shaped association for males and an insignificant relation of the same shape for females. When the largest categories of equivalent average volume of consumption were divided into people with and without heavy drinking occasions, serving as an indicator of drinking pattern, this differentiation proved important in predicting mortality. Light to moderate drinkers had higher mortality risks when they reported heavy drinking occasions (defined by either eight drinks per occasion or getting drunk at least monthly). Similarly, when the category of exdrinkers was divided into people who did or did not report heavy drinking occasions in the past, people with heavy drinking occasions had a higher mortality risk. Finally, indicating alcohol problems in the past was related to higher mortality risk. Results emphasized the importance of routinely including measures of drinking patterns into future epidemiologic studies on alcohol-related mortality.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Problem drinking among hospitalized patients in Hungary.

Alcohol is an important determinant of the overall burden of disease in Eastern Europe. It is a particularly important problem in Hungary, where death rates from cirrhosis have increased rapidly to levels much higher than in neighbouring countries. This study sought to describe the prevalence of problem drinking among the hospitalized population in Hungary by means of a survey of self-reported alcohol consumption and of the prevalence of current or lifetime problem drinking among hospitalized patients in the four teaching hospitals in Hungary. A survey was conducted of all patients (n = 3140) admitted to medical, surgical, trauma, psychiatric and neurological wards over a 2-week period in 1997 who stayed in hospital for at least 24 h, using a survey instrument based on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and Luebeck Alcoholism Screening Test (LAST) instruments designed to screen for current and lifetime problem drinking respectively. In all, 23.5% of men and over 53.5% of women reported never drinking alcohol. Of those who did drink, about one in eight men and less than 1% of women reported drinking 5 or more drinks on a day when they drank. Whether defined by LAST or AUDIT, the prevalence of problem drinking was approximately 19% among men and 2% among women, although this rose to 32-35% among men aged 35-44 years. The rate did not vary significantly with employment or education, but was higher among those who were divorced. These high rates of problem drinking indicate the need for coherent policies on alcohol in Hungary.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Agreement between self and partner reports of paternal drinking and smoking. The ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood.

BACKGROUND: We examined agreement between self and proxy reports of paternal drinking and smoking behaviour using data collected as part of the prospective, population-based Avon (England) Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. METHODS: Information on the smoking and drinking habits of pregnant women's male partners was obtained through self-administered questionnaires completed by pregnant participants and by their partners. For dichotomous indicators (e.g. smoker versus non-smoker), we evaluated self/proxy agreement by calculating Kappa coefficients and per cent agreement. For ordinal measures of smoking and drinking amounts, we calculated per cent perfect agreement, per cent agreement within one category, and Spearman correlation coefficients. Data from 8414 respondent pairs were included in the analyses. RESULTS: Men's and women's reports of paternal smoking and drinking status were in nearly complete agreement (95% and 98%, respectively). For analyses of smoking and drinking amounts, agreement within one category remained high (90% and 98% for smoking and drinking, respectively), but perfect agreement on amount was somewhat lower (81% and 71%, respectively). Per cent perfect agreement on smoking amount was especially low (50%) when non-smokers were excluded. When couples' reports were not in perfect agreement, women tended to report lower amounts of smoking and drinking for their partners compared to the men's self reports. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that women's proxy reports of their partners' drinking and smoking status can be used with considerable confidence in reproductive epidemiological studies when the enrollment of both women and men as participants is infeasible for financial or logistical reasons. Caution is warranted, however, when proxy reports are used for more detailed information on smoking and drinking amounts.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Alcohol drinking patterns differentially affect central adiposity as measured by abdominal height in women and men.

Alcohol drinking in light-to-moderate amounts has been associated with reduced coronary heart disease (CHD) risk. However, there is evidence that the way people consume alcohol (drinking pattern) may affect risk. Central adiposity, a known CHD risk factor may be one mechanism in the pathway between alcohol consumption and CHD risk. Our study examined whether various drinking patterns differentially affect fat distribution, particularly abdominal fat in women and men. In a randomly selected population-based cohort (n = 2343), 35-79 y old, we assessed drinking pattern as reported for the past 30 d, including beverage type and amount, frequency of consumption, percentage of time drinking while eating and number of drinks consumed/drinking day. Central adiposity was determined using an abdominal caliper to measure supine height of the abdomen. Current drinkers tended to have smaller abdominal heights than nondrinkers (women, P < 0.0001; men, P = 0.0559). For drinking pattern, frequency was inversely associated, but drinking intensity (drinks/drinking day) was positively associated with central adiposity in women (P trend for frequency, 0.0007; intensity, 0.0010) and men (P trend for frequency, 0.0005; intensity, 0.0004), even when age, education, physical activity, smoking status and amount of alcohol (g) were included in the models. When frequency and intensity were considered together, daily drinkers of <1 drink/drinking day had the smallest mean abdominal height measures with the largest measures in less than weekly drinkers who consumed 4 or more drinks/drinking day. These results support the hypothesis that drinking pattern affects the distribution of body fat, an important CHD risk factor.

Abdomen↗
PubMed2003

Behavioral undercontrol and subjective stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol intoxication: independent predictors of drinking habits?

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have demonstrated relations between behavioral undercontrol (e.g., sensation seeking) and higher levels of alcohol use. The mechanism underlying this relation is not yet understood. In this article, we investigate the role of subjective stimulant and sedative effects of intoxication on drinking habits, and we test the possibility that these effects mediate or moderate relations between behavioral undercontrol and drinking habits. METHODS: College drinkers (n = 91) consumed 0.85 ml/kg of alcohol (approximately four drinks) and completed self-report measures of stimulation and sedation at three time points: (1) before drinking; (2) 15 min after consumption, on the ascending limb of the blood alcohol curve; and (3) 45 min after consumption, on the descending limb of the curve. In addition, participants completed the MacAndrew Alcoholism and Sensation Seeking Scales, indices of behavioral undercontrol, and a self-report questionnaire of drinking habits (quantity, frequency, and maximum). RESULTS: As expected, undercontrol was strongly related to drinking habits (p < 0.0005). Undercontrol was also significantly related to ascending limb stimulation ( < 0.005), which, in turn, was related to drinking habits (p < 0.005). Finally, stimulation was found to moderate the relations between undercontrol and drinking habits such that relations were stronger at higher levels of stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: These findings may help to better understand the variability in drinking behavior, and this may be critical in eventually developing and appropriately targeting prevention efforts.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Is risk for alcoholism mediated by individual differences in drinking motivations?

BACKGROUND: Individual differences in motivations to drink have been proposed as a mechanism that mediates risk for alcoholism. We investigated the genetic and environmental sources of variation in motivations for drinking, as assessed by four scales of the Alcohol Use Inventory (AUI), and then examined the extent to which genetic and environmental variations in risk for alcoholism are mediated by individual differences in drinking motives. METHODS: Data on four AUI scales (assessing drinking to manage mood states, to relieve social anxiety, in social situations, and to improve mental functioning) and lifetime DSM-IV alcohol abuse and/or dependence (AAD) were obtained from 2529 female and 3709 male adult twins, including 2229 complete twin pairs, from the population-based Virginia Twin Registry. RESULTS: Logistic regression analyses indicated that higher scores on each of the four AUI variables were significantly associated with AAD, with increases in risk for diagnosis of 40% to 141% per standard deviation increase in AUI score. Structural modeling analyses conducted using Mplus indicated that individual differences in AUI scores were in part due to genetic variation, particularly among women. Among males, genetic factors were substantial for drinking to alter mood but small for other measures. A substantial portion of the genetic variation in AAD overlapped with drinking to manage mood states. Results from bivariate twin models of AAD and the AUI scales were consistent with the mediation hypothesis for the social anxiety and social interaction scales but not drinking to manage mood or to enhance mental functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Genetic contributions to variation in risk for alcoholism may be mediated in part by individual differences in motivations related to drinking in social settings. Drinking to manage mood indexes genetic risk for alcoholism but does not appear to act as a direct cause of alcoholism.

Affect↗
PubMed2004

Drinking and spouse abuse among U.S. Army soldiers.

BACKGROUND: This study examines the relationship between typical weekly drinking and perpetration of spouse abuse as well as the relationship between the perpetrator's typical weekly drinking and alcohol use during the abuse event among U.S. Army male soldiers. METHODS: Cases include all active duty, male, enlisted Army spouse abusers identified in the Army's Central Registry who had also completed an Army Health Risk Appraisal Survey (HRA) between 1991 and 1998 (N = 9534). Cases were matched on sex, rank, and marital status with 21,786 control subjects who had also completed an HRA. RESULTS: In multivariate logistic regression models, heavy drinkers (22 or more drinks per week) were 66% more likely to be spouse abusers than were abstainers (odds ratio 1.66; 95% confidence interval 1.40-1.96). In addition, self-reported moderate and heavy drinkers were three times as likely and light drinkers (1-7 drinks per week) were twice as likely as nondrinkers to be drinking during the time of the abuse event. CONCLUSION: Self-reported heavy drinking is an independent risk factor for perpetration of spouse abuse among male, enlisted Army soldiers. Even 5 years or more after ascertainment of typical drinking habits, there is a significant association between self-reported heavy drinking and alcohol involvement at the time of the spouse abuse event. Personnel who work with perpetrators and victims of spouse abuse should be trained carefully to query about current and typical drinking patterns.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1992

Positive and negative consequences of alcohol drinking among young university students in Finland.

In a sample of 1663 female and 707 male Finnish university students in their first study year, the female students reported less negative and less positive consequences of alcohol drinking than their male counterparts. The female students also drank less, less frequently and less often for intoxication. However, the profile of negative and positive consequences of drinking was similar for both genders; 74.6% of the female students and 80.0% of the males had more positive than negative experiences from alcohol. Both the positive and negative consequences of drinking correlated positively to alcohol consumption and drinking for intoxication. About half of the students who had many positive consequences of drinking were not heavy drinkers and did not report many negative consequences. Depression, anxiety, stress or psychosomatic symptoms did not correlate with either with positive or negative consequences of drinking, nor with alcohol consumption. Drinking for anxiety, depression, stress or the reduction of tension appeared to be infrequent. Young Finnish university students mostly drink for the positive consequences of drinking.

Achievement↗
PubMed2004

Alcohol expectancies and drinking in different age groups.

AIMS: Because expectancies about the effects of alcohol change as drinking experience is accumulated, it is likely that the relationship of expectancy to drinking will differ with age. In this study, we examine the prediction of drinking behavior from positive and negative outcome expectancy at different ages. DESIGN: Data were collected as part of the National Alcohol Survey, using a multi-stage area probability sample of the household population of the 48 contiguous United States. PARTICIPANTS: US residents aged 12 and older (n = 2875). MEASUREMENTS: Survey questions included drinking habits (frequency, quantity, frequency of drunkenness, maximum quantity) and beliefs about the effects of alcohol (alcohol expectancies). FINDINGS: Structural equation models tested the relationship of positive and negative expectancy to drinking behavior in six age groups. Outcome expectancy accounted for a larger portion of the variance in drinking among younger respondents than among older respondents. However, suppression effects were common. When suppression effects were considered, positive expectancy predicted drinking better than negative expectancy only among respondents under 35, while negative expectancy was a better predictor of drinking status in most respondents over 35 years. Among drinkers, positive expectancy predominated over negative expectancy when suppression effects were considered. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that negative expectancy predicts abstention, while positive expectancy predicts level of drinking among drinkers. In expectancy research, differences between drinkers and abstainers, age of participants and the presence of suppression effects should be taken into account.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Association of age at onset of cigarette and alcohol use with subsequent smoking and drinking patterns among Japanese high school students.

This study examined relationships between age of smoking and drinking initiation, and subsequent patterns of smoking and drinking among Japanese high school students. Self-administered anonymous questionnaires were conducted using a sample of 1,466 students in grades 10 through 12 at seven public senior high schools in urban areas of Okinawa, Japan. After controlling for demographic variables, students who began smoking at age 12 or younger were more likely to become heavy smokers and heavy drinkers than those who began smoking at ages 15 or older. Age of smoking initiation was not related to risks for current smoking and current drinking. Students who started drinking at age 12 or younger, and at 13 or 14 years, were significantly associated with current smoking, current drinking, heavy smoking, and heavy drinking, compared to students who began drinking at ages 15 or older. Early onset smoking and drinking represent significant predictors for subsequent use of cigarettes and alcohol. These findings suggest that smoking and drinking prevention programs should begin during elementary school.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1975

Drinking by dogs during and after running.

1. Drinking by dogs has been studied during and after running on a treadmill, and compared with the drinking produced by NaCl given by stomach tube or intravenously. 2. When water was offered with a delay of more than 5 min after the end of a run producing loss of 30-90 g water by panting, the drinking was similar to that produced by NaCl, assuming that loss of 100 g water produces the same increase in plasma sodium as 15 m-mole NaCl. It is thus possible to explain drinking with a delay after the run as due to loss of water. 3. When water was offered immediately after a run or during pauses in the running there was drinking which cannot be explained as due to loss of water. Although the immediate stimulus to drinking is small, it may cause repeated small drinks by which the evaporative loss of water during running is matched by water intake. 4. Water (10-20 ml./kg body wt.) given by stomach tube before the run reduced or abolished drinking during running. Doses of water sufficient to stop drinking did not cause an increase in urine volume. 5. From these results a figure is produced placing in order mechanisms which may contribute to the control of water balance.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Drinking caused by exposing dogs to radiant heat.

1. Exposure to radiant heat caused dogs to pant and lose water by evaporation at rates of 40-70 g/hr. 2. When water was offered at intervals during the heating, the dogs drank at about half of the opportunities. The individual drinks were small but, by their repetition, loss of water by evaporation during heating was approximately matched by drinking. 3. Water given by stomach tube reduced drinking during a subsequent period of heating. 4. When water was offered more than 15 min after the end of a period of heating, after panting had ceased, drinking occurred only if the water loss exceeded 50-70 g, about 0-6% of the body water. This is regarded as drinking due to loss of water, beyond a threshold of dehydration necessary to stimulate drinking with the dog at rest. When water was offered during heating, drinking occurred with dehydration less than this threshold. 5. The drinking produced by heating was similar to that produced by running (O'Connor, 1975). When the animal ran under heat, panting was more severe and the water loss greater (85-150 g/hr); it was approximately matched by more drinking.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Consumption of carbonated and noncarbonated sports drinks during prolonged treadmill exercise in the heat.

These studies were done to determine the effect of carbonation and carbohydrate content on either gastric emptying or ad libitum drinking during treadmill exercise in the heat. Four test drinks were used: a 6% carbohydrate, noncarbonated; a 6% carbohydrate, carbonated; a 10% carbohydrate, noncarbonated; and a 10% carbohydrate, carbonated drink. For gastric emptying studies, subjects completed four 1-hr treadmill runs in the heat. They were given 400 mL of test drink at 0 min and 200 mL at 15, 30, and 45 min of exercise. For ad libitum drinking studies, subjects completed four 2-hr treadmill runs in the heat. Gastric residual volumes were similar during the four 1-hr runs. During the 2-hr runs, ad libitum drinking of the four beverages was also similar. Mean values for sweat rate, percentage of body weight lost, and percentage of fluid replaced by ad libitum drinking were similar for the four trials. Similar changes in heart rate, rectal temperature, and ratings of perceived exertion were also observed during the four 2-hr treadmill runs. We conclude that the presence of carbonation in a carbohydrate drink did not have a significant effect on either gastric emptying or ad libitum drinking.

Adult↗