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PubMed2000

[Reading speed in movement in the peripheral visual field].

BACKGROUND: Moving and distracting stimuli often occur in the peripheral visual field during visual tasks in daily life. Do they influence reading performance? METHOD: In 30 normal subjects with a normal visual acuity we investigated eye movements by electronystagmography (ENG) during silent reading of a standardized text. The 17 degrees-wide text was presented at a distance of 1 m, ENG was recorded bitemporally. Blinks were monitored via vertical ENG electrodes. For surrounding stimulation we presented a bar stimulus moving at 30 degrees/s. Three experimental conditions were compared: [1] no peripheral motion, [2] peripheral motion to the right, and [3] peripheral motion to the left. We quantitatively analyzed reading speed and blink frequency. RESULTS: Reading speed and blink frequency was nearly identical in the three experimental conditions, they differed by 1-8%. CONCLUSIONS: Although the full periphery was stimulated, and the moving stimulus was noticed by our subjects, reading was not affected by surrounding optokinetic stimulation. Attentive reading does not appear to be affected by visual motion in the periphery.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Development of auditory event-related potentials in young children and relations to word-level reading abilities at age 8 years.

A relationship between brain responses at birth and later emerging language and reading skills have been shown, but questions remains whether changes in brain responses after birth continue to predict the mastery of language-related skills such as reading development. To determine whether developmental changes in the brain-based perceptual skills are systematically related to differences in word-level reading proficiency at age 8 years, brain event-related potentials (ERPs) to speech and non-speech stimuli were recorded annually at the ages of 1 through 8 years in a sample of 109 typically developing children. Two measures of word-level reading (one that requires decoding of real words and one of pseudowords) were administered at age 8 years. Growth curve analysis, using the hierarchical linear models, related reading performance (average versus low) to the longitudinal maturation in the ERP waveform peak and latencies. Maturational changes (e.g. slope, acceleration and cubic growth) in N1 amplitude from ages 1 to 4 were related to proficiency in decoding pseudoword stimuli only, with children who were less proficient in decoding pseudowords evidencing more steeply negative declines in amplitude with age, particularly at the frontal and parietal recording sites in response to both speech and non-speech stimuli. In contrast, proficient in decoding real words was related to developmental changes in N2 amplitudes from ages 4 to 8 only at the parietal recording site and only in response to non-speech stimuli. The early development of biologically-based differences in the perception and processing of auditory information contributes to later group differences in reading proficiencies at school age.

Aptitude↗
PubMed1993

When reading is acquired but phonemic awareness is not: a study of literacy in Down's syndrome.

The concept of phonological awareness (PA) has loomed large in recent discussions of the acquisition of literacy in alphabetic orthographies (Bryant & Goswami, 1987). The term is usually taken to imply overt knowledge of how spoken words can be analysed into their constituent sounds ("phones"). This awareness is assessed by such tasks as requiring the child to produce (or recognize) rhymes, to indicate how many sounds there are in a particular word, or to delete a constituent (phone or syllable) of a word and pronounce the remainder. It has been asserted that these skills play a causal role in the development of reading ability (Bradley & Bryant, 1983). We provide evidence against the position that such skills are essential prerequisites for reading (and any other hypothesis that claims necessary causal links between reading and PA). It is shown that some children with Down's syndrome can learn to read despite their failure on a set of tasks conventionally employed to assess PA. The pedagogic implication is that reading should be taught by teaching reading skills (including letter-sound correspondences), not phonological awareness skills.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

The possible existence of phonemic reading in the presence of Broca's aphasia: a case report.

This case study examined phonemic reading and reading comprehension in the presence of Broca's aphasia. The patient, T.B., a 16 yr old male, suffered an occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Spontaneous speech was limited, naming difficulties were apparent, and comprehension was mildly impaired. Though the patient could read only a small number of words aloud, he was able to read silently for comprehension on a standardized instrument. Moreover, T.B. was able to match orally-presented pseudowords to their written analogs, a finding which suggests that phonemic processing for nonlexical material was to some degree intact. The results were contrasted to the reading patterns usually reported to be present in "frontal" alexia and deep dyslexia. The possible existence of a dissociation between phonemic processing in reading and speech behavior as well as its mechanism was discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Reading speed in pure alexia.

This study investigated possible causes of differences in reading speed between two alexic patients who read words letter by letter. As both patients appeared to rely on serial left-to-right processing of letters within words, the difference in reading speed did not seem to be related to any differences in the extent to which the patients could recognize letters in words in parallel or 'ends-in'. Differences in reading speed also seemed to be unrelated to the patients ability to identify individual letters since their letter recognition accuracy was very similar. Furthermore, although patient PD was significantly slower at reading words aloud than patient DC, PD was in fact significantly quicker than DC on a test that has previously been used to assess letter recognition skills in letter-by-letter readers. It is therefore concluded that PD reads words more slowly because of an additional impairment at the level of the word form system. The results therefore reinforce the distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 letter-by-letter readers that was first drawn by Patterson and Kay.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Printed cards for measuring low-vision reading speed.

There is a growing consensus that clinical evaluation of the real-world consequences of eye disease requires new performance-based tests. This is because Snellen acuity and other common clinical tests are often poor predictors of everyday function. Ahn and Legge [(1995) Vision Research, 35, 1931-1938] validated a computerized test of reading speed by showing that it provides an accurate prediction of low-vision reading performance with magnifiers. Here, we describe development of a printed-card version of the test suitable for clinical use. This printed-card test retains key design features of the validated computerized test, including the same set of sentences and display format. Data from 23 low-vision subjects showed that a very simple testing procedure using printed cards and a stop watch could be used effectively to estimate reading speed. Reading speed based on a single card was quite accurate (SD equal to about 18% of the mean) and showed no practice effects from one card to the next. Reading speeds obtained with printed cards correlated highly (r = 0.887) with those from computerized testing. We conclude that a simple test, using printed cards, can be used to obtain useful estimates of low-vision reading speed.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Dyslexic children learn a new visual strategy for reading: a controlled experiment.

Recent studies by Geiger, Lettvin and Zegarra-Moran have proposed a new non-reading test for the diagnosis of dyslexia, and a new method for remediation. The latter involves the learning of a "visual strategy". On adult dyslexics the test was reliable and the remediation apparently effective. The purpose of this study is to confirm the usefulness of the remediation and test with children. Dyslexic children (3rd-6th grade) were divided into two groups. The experimental group (9) was given a new remedial regimen of practise. The control group (6) continued the remedial process given in their school. After 3 months of practising their separate regimens all the dyslexic children who were in the two groups were retested and compared. The "experimental" dyslexics improved in reading by 1.22 grade level on average while the "control" dyslexics improved by 0.17 grade on average. The form-resolving field (FRF) plots narrowed significantly for the experimental dyslexics while they changed little for the control dyslexics. At the end of the second testing the control dyslexics were also given the new regimen of practise. Five months later all the dyslexic children were tested for the third time. The initial control dyslexics who later practised the regimen (2) improved in reading by 2-2.5 grades and their FRF plot narrowed. The experimental dyslexics continued to improve yet further. All the dyslexic who practised the new regimen started at an average of 2.5 grades behind their expected grade/age level and after 8 months were at an average 0.75 grades behind their expected grade/age level. This is on average 1.75 grade level improvement in reading within 8 months, a rate of improvement larger than that of ordinary reading subjects. The dyslexic children were compared with matched grade/age ordinary reading children for reference. The study confirms the usefulness of the test and the applicability of the remediation method for children. It also shows that improvement under that method is quite rapid.

Child↗
PubMed1987

Accurate reading by nonlexical means: a case study.

Accurate reading of irregular words is generally assumed to require intact lexical reading mechanisms. A nonlexical mechanism is usually deemed insufficient for this type of stimulus processing. The maximum level of accuracy attainable by nonlexical means, however, has not been adequately evaluated. We now describe a patient with acquired dyslexia due to impaired lexical reading mechanisms who retained the ability to read irregular words. The patient's poor performance on tasks requiring lexical decision and access to word meaning provided evidence that his lexical mechanisms were impaired. Nevertheless, errors on irregular words became apparent only with special tests that circumvented the patient's ability to use his intact speaking vocabulary to ensure that reading responses were words. The results demonstrate that relatively accurate reading of irregular words is possible despite damage to lexical mechanisms and that this can be achieved by filtering potential responses through the speaking vocabulary.

Dyslexia, Acquired↗
PubMed1990

Reading in callosal agenesis.

It has been suggested that deficits in explicit phonological processing are causal in developmental dyslexia. Deficits in such skills have been reported in developmental phonological dyslexia, though not in developmental surface dyslexia. The reading performance of two children with callosal agenesis, who have been previously shown to have impairments on rhyming tasks, are reported. Neither child is dyslexic in the traditional sense, since word reading levels are appropriate for age. However, both children have impaired development of the phonological reading route despite normal lexical skills. The pattern of their reading is therefore comparable to developmental phonological dyslexia. Problems in explicit phonological processing may be causal in the failure to establish an efficient phonological reading route but this is insufficient to create difficulty with word recognition itself. The corpus callosum may be essential for the normal development of a phonological reading route.

Agenesis of Corpus Callosum↗
PubMed1992

Dissociation of mechanisms of reading in Alzheimer's disease.

The role of spelling-to-sound correspondence rules in oral word reading was investigated by asking patients with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and normal controls to read aloud pronounceable letter strings that do not happen to be real words. These pseudowords were of two types: those that have orthographically similar "neighbors," and those that have no neighbors. The patients with AD were mildly impaired relative to the normal controls in reading pseudowords with neighbors, but were markedly impaired in reading pseudowords with no neighbors. The results are interpreted as favoring a model of reading in which words and pseudowords are normally read via the same lexical mechanism. An ancillary route involving the conscious application of spelling-to-sound rules is available only to cognitively intact readers.

Aged↗
PubMed1992

Lateral versus frontal ERP predictors of reading skill.

Neuropsychological factors that could account for good versus poor reading skills include hemispheric asymmetry for language, signal processing efficiency, hemisphericity, and frontally based control of attention. Using event-related potential (ERP) measures of these constructs, we find that only hemisphericity accounts for individual differences in reading skill among our 15-year-old good readers, while the frontally generated Contingent Negative Variation attentional ERP accounts for reading skill differences among the poor readers. While good readers show expected hemispheric ERP asymmetries and poor readers do not, this group difference does not account for the variation in reading skill. These data suggest that below some crucial threshold, reading disability is predicted by frontal attentional skill, whereas above this threshold, good reading is better predicted by hemisphericity.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Development of perceptual correlates of reading performance.

Performance on perceptual tasks requiring the discrimination of brief, temporally proximate or temporally varying sensory stimuli (temporal processing tasks) is impaired in some individuals with developmental language disorder and/or dyslexia. Little is known about how these temporal processes in perception develop and how they relate to language and reading performance in the normal population. The present study examined performance on 8 temporal processing tasks and 5 language/reading tasks in 120 unselected readers who varied in age over a range in which reading and phonological awareness were developing. Performance on all temporal processing tasks except coherent motion detection improved over ages 7 years to adulthood (p<0.01), especially between ages 7 and 13 years. Independent of these age effects, performance on all 8 temporal processing tasks predicted phonological awareness and reading performance (p<0.05), and three auditory temporal processing tasks predicted receptive language function (p<0.05). Furthermore, all temporal processing measures except within-channel gap detection and coherent motion detection predicted unique variance in phonological scores within subjects, whereas only within-channel gap detection performance explained unique variance in orthographic reading performance. These findings partially support the (Farmer, M.E., Klein, R.M., 1995. The evidence for a temporal processing deficit linked to dyslexia: A review. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 2, 460-493) notion of there being separable auditory and visual perceptual contributions to phonological and orthographic reading development. The data also are compatible with the view that the umbrella term "temporal processing" encompasses fundamentally different sensory or cognitive processes that may contribute differentially to language and reading performance, which may have different developmental trajectories and be differentially susceptible to pathology.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

"...and were instructed to read a self-selected book while ignoring the auditory stimuli": the effects of task demands on the mismatch negativity.

OBJECTIVE: The Mismatch Negativity (MMN) is commonly recorded while the subject is reading, and instructed to ignore the auditory stimuli. It is generally assumed that the demands of the diversion task will have no effect on the MMN. Several studies, however, have reported that a diversion task presumably requiring strong attentional focus is associated with a smaller MMN than that elicited during a less demanding task. This study examines the effect of variations in the classical reading paradigm on the MMN. METHODS: In Experiment 1, event-related potentials (ERP) were recorded while subjects were presented with standard (80 dB SPL 1000 Hz) and frequency deviant (1050 Hz) stimuli. Subjects were instructed to ignore the tone pips and, in separate conditions, engage in different tasks. They were asked to read a text or to sit passively. Subjects were informed that they would subsequently be queried or not about the content of the reading. In Experiment 2, the auditory sequence included the same standard (80 dB SPL 1000 Hz) but the deviant was changed to an intensity decrement (70 dB SPL). A different sample of subjects was again asked to ignore the auditory stimuli and engage in different reading tasks that would or not be followed by query. RESULTS: In all task conditions, MMN was elicited by the frequency and intensity change. The intensity MMN did not significantly vary with task. A significant effect of task was, however, found for the frequency MMN. Its amplitude was largest when subjects were later queried about their reading. CONCLUSIONS: This finding is counter-intuitive in light of previous research on the attentional modulation of the MMN. The pattern of frequency MMN results may relate to the differences in cortical excitability across tasks. SIGNIFICANCE: The present results indicate that the nature of the diversion task may affect the MMN. The choice of diversion task during MMN recording should thus be carefully considered.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2006

Evidence that vestibular hypofunction affects reading acuity in children.

OBJECTIVE: Despite reported gaze stability deficits in children with hearing impairment and concurrent vestibular hypofunction, the reading difficulties reported in this population have not been linked to the gaze instability. The purpose of this study was to develop a modified version of the MNREAD chart that enabled responses orally or using sign language. METHODS: Seventy-two typically developing children and 14 children with sensorineural hearing loss with and without vestibular hypofunction participated. We examined: (1) reliability and age related changes in reading acuity scores, (2) the effect of vestibular hypofunction on reading acuity scores, and (3) the relationship between these scores and a test of dynamic visual acuity. RESULTS: The test was reliable (ICC (3,2)>or=0.86). Reading acuity scores were significantly worse in children with vestibular hypofunction (p<or=0.002). Furthermore, reading acuity scores correlated with dynamic not static visual acuity scores (r=0.55, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These results imply that the gaze instability due to vestibular hypofunction affects reading ability in young children.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Phonological recoding and rapid orthographic learning in third-graders' silent reading: a critical test of the self-teaching hypothesis.

This study examined rapid orthographic learning following silent reading in third-grade children as a function of number of target nonword repetitions and test delay. In each of two test sessions at least 6 days apart, children read a series of short stories, with each story containing a different nonword repeated either four or eight times. In the second session, after the stories had been read, children were asked to read short lists of target nonwords or homophonic alternatives. Children read target nonwords faster than homophones, indicating that they had formed functional orthographic representations of the target nonwords through phonologically recoding them during silent story reading. They also preferred target nonwords to homophones in an orthographic choice task in which the alternatives included the target, the homophone, and a visually similar foil, although here orthographic learning was stronger for items encountered eight times within stories and stronger for items tested immediately. These findings provide critical evidence in support of Share's self-teaching through phonological recoding hypothesis.

Child↗
PubMed2006

The cognitive bases of learning to read and spell in Greek: evidence from a longitudinal study.

We conducted a longitudinal study examining the role of phonemic awareness, phonological processing, and grammatical skills in the development of reading and spelling abilities in Greek. A battery of cognitive, linguistic, and literacy tasks was administered to 131 primary school children (65 7-year-olds and 66 9-year-olds) and was repeated in the following year (8- and 10-year-olds, respectively). Phoneme awareness, speech rate, and rapid automatized naming (RAN) were concurrent predictors of reading rate at Time 1 (T1), and speech rate was a longitudinal predictor of reading rate at Time 2 (T2) when reading at T1 was controlled. The predictors of spelling differed from those of reading; phoneme awareness and speech rate predicted concurrent attainments at T1, and phoneme awareness was a robust longitudinal predictor. Despite the differences in the degree of transparency between the Greek and English orthographies, phoneme awareness predicts variations in learning to read and spell in both languages.

Child↗
PubMed2006

The role of discourse context in developing word form representations: a paradoxical relation between reading and learning.

To acquire representations of printed words, children must attend to the written form of a word and link this form with the word's pronunciation. When words are read in context, they may be read with less attention to these features, and this can lead to poorer word form retention. Two experiments with young children (ages 5-8 years) confirmed this hypothesis. In our experiments, children attempted to read words they could not previously read, during a self-teaching period, either in context or in isolation. Later they were tested on how well they learned the words as a function of self-teaching condition (isolation or context). Consistent with previous research, children read more words accurately in context than in isolation during self-teaching; however, children had better retention for words learned in isolation. Furthermore, this benefit from learning in isolation was larger for less skilled readers. This effect of poorer word retention when words are learned in context is paradoxical because context has been shown to facilitate word identification. We discuss factors that may influence this effect of context, especially the role of children's skill level and the demands of learning new word representations at the beginning of reading instruction.

Child↗
PubMed2006

Paired-associate learning, phoneme awareness, and learning to read.

We report two studies examining the relations among three paired-associate learning (PAL) tasks (visual-visual, verbal-verbal, and visual-verbal), phoneme deletion, and single-word and nonword reading ability. Correlations between the PAL tasks and reading were strongest for the visual-verbal task. Path analyses showed that both phoneme deletion and visual-verbal PAL were unique predictors of a composite measure of single-word reading and of irregular word reading. However, for nonword reading, phoneme deletion was the only unique predictor (and visual-verbal PAL was not a significant predictor). These results are consistent with the view that learning visual (orthography) to phonological mappings is an important skill for developing word recognition skills in reading and that individual differences in this ability can be tapped experimentally by a PAL task.

Awareness↗