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PubMed2002

Headache education in colleges of pharmacy.

OBJECTIVE: To assess primary headache education in colleges of pharmacy during the 2000-2001 academic year. DESIGN: A survey seeking to quantify students' primary headache education was mailed to all 82 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy member schools. RESULTS: A usable response was obtained from 65 of 74 answering schools. Per professional year, the average pharmacy student receives 1 headache core course contact hour and no headache elective course contact hours. Two schools offer clerkships devoted exclusively to headaches. Six schools offer clerkships in which a student could expect to focus on headache therapy at least 25% of the time. Seven schools plan to alter their current curriculum to include more headache education, all via additional lectures. CONCLUSIONS: Few opportunities exist for students to learn about primary headaches in colleges of pharmacy. Given the high prevalence and poor medical management of primary headache disorders along with the commonality of pharmacist-headache patient interactions occurring in practice, pharmacy schools should evaluate and alter their curriculum to include more primary headache education.

Curriculum↗
PubMed2006

[Pharmacy and therapeutics committees in Brazil: lagging behind international standards].

The inadequate use of drugs leads to lack of therapeutic efficacy, adverse reactions, side effects, preventable drug interactions, increased bacterial resistance to antibiotics, and wasted resources. Changing this scenario is one of the most complex challenges facing health systems today. One approach used to rationalize the use of drugs lies in the creation of pharmacy and therapeutics committees, whose main role is to guide and assist health institutions at all levels in selecting drugs and monitoring their use, training professionals to use drugs rationally, and collecting systematized information to guide new strategies and actions. Brazil, unlike other parts of the world, does not make it compulsory to have pharmacy and therapeutics committees. Although committees for monitoring hospital infections are compulsory in that country, their action is restricted to hospitals and is not as broad as that proposed for pharmacy and therapeutics committees. Data from 2003 shows that among 250 public and private hospitals in Brazil, only 29 had pharmacy and therapeutics committees. It is essential that the need to make these committees compulsory at all levels of the Brazilian health system be discussed, and that the national Ministry of Health and other related agencies create the conditions necessary for the establishment of pharmacy and therapeutics committees, in accordance with other health policies currently in place.

Brazil↗
PubMed2004

Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties-certified faculty: a survey of United States colleges of pharmacy.

Board certification of pharmacists has been a reality in the United States since 1976, when the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties (BPS) was founded. Little has been reported about the effects of board certification of pharmacists, particularly pharmacy practice faculty, since 1992, when the BPS administered its first certification examination. We developed and pretested a survey to describe and measure the effect of BPS certification on the realm of academia as perceived by deans of colleges of pharmacy in the United States. Deans or other appropriate officials at all 84 colleges of pharmacy in the United States were asked to complete and submit this 13-question survey, which was administered through the Web and maintained respondents' anonymity. Officials from 35 of the 84 colleges completed the survey, for a response rate of 42%. No college reported that board certification was a condition for employment. Eight schools (23%) anticipated a certification requirement in the future. The most commonly reimbursed items associated with certification were fees for the American College of Clinical Pharmacy preparatory course and the BPS examination. Twelve schools (34%) provided no reimbursement toward certification. The most common incentive for faculty to obtain certification was consideration in promotion and tenure (66%). We believe that this information will facilitate efforts to gauge the effects of BPS certification on colleges of pharmacy. We also anticipate that it will assist colleges as they attempt to recruit and retain the most qualified faculty members possible, particularly in light of the national pharmacist shortage.

Certification↗
PubMed2006

Emotional intelligence instruction in a pharmacy communications course.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the benefits of incorporating emotional intelligence instruction into a required pharmacy communications course. DESIGN: Specific learning objectives were developed based upon the emotional intelligence framework and how it can be applied to pharmacy practice. Qualitative data on student perceptions were collected and analyzed using theme analysis. ASSESSMENT: Students found instruction on emotional intelligence to be a positive experience. Students reported learning the taxonomy of emotional intelligence--a concept that previously was difficult for them to articulate or describe, and could use this knowledge in future pharmacy management situations. Students also recognized that their new knowledge of emotional intelligence would lead to better patient outcomes. CONCLUSION: Students had positive perceptions of the importance of emotional intelligence. They valued its inclusion in the pharmacy curriculum and saw practical applications of emotional intelligence to the practice of pharmacy.

Communication↗
PubMed2006

Organizing a community advanced pharmacy practice experience.

Setting up a community advanced pharmacy practice experience can be an overwhelming task for many pharmacy preceptors. This article provides guidance to pharmacist preceptors in developing a complete and effective community advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE). When preparing for the APPE, initial discussions with the college or school of pharmacy are key. Benefits, training, and requirements should be addressed. Site preparation, including staff education, will assist in the development process. The preceptor should plan orientation day activities and determine appropriate evaluation and feedback methods. With thorough preparation, the APPE will be rewarding for both the student and the pharmacy site.

Community Pharmacy Services↗
PubMed1998

Pharmacy student expectations for professional practice.

The professional employment market for pharmacists has changed radically in recent years. Additionally, data regarding perception of future practice among pharmacy students are limited. The purpose of this study was to characterize expectations for professional practice among pharmacy students and to identify curriculum support at a college of pharmacy. A survey examining student educational experiences, career preferences, and demographic variables was distributed to 1,297 students enrolled in the first to sixth year. Six hundred thirty responses were evaluated. Doctor of Pharmacy students indicated that their education better prepared them for their expected career than did Bachelor of Science students (P < .03). The former also had a more positive outlook regarding future career opportunities than the latter (P < .01) and indicated to a greater extent that HMOs and pharmacy benefit management companies are growing sources of employment for pharmacists (P < .001).

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed1987

Death education: a survey of U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy.

This survey was conducted to assess the present state of death education available to pharmacy students at both the BS and PharmD degree levels. Eighty-five percent of the colleges and schools of pharmacy located in the United States provided information concerning: (i) attitudes toward teaching death education; (ii) present offerings; (iii) academic background of instructors and departments responsible for death education programs; and (iv) course information. It was determined that 38 colleges of pharmacy offered some form of death education in their curricula during 1985. However, only 12 schools offered a full semester course, and many schools offered death education as an elective through a discipline other than pharmacy. As a result, a majority of graduates are still leaving pharmacy schools without any instruction in death education. The implications of these and other findings are discussed.

Attitude to Death↗
PubMed1989

The evaluation of pharmacist-technician teams applied to a satellite pharmacy.

The team work group design has been suggested as a mechanism to integrate clinical and distributive pharmacy services, expand clinical roles, enhance staff satisfaction, and promote resource efficiency. A pharmacist-technician team was created at Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, and the effects of the team were assessed via pre and post data collection of attitudinal, behavioral and pharmacy service aspects. Each of three satellite teams were responsible for all pharmacy services to a target group of patients. The results of the team design include a significant decrease in pharmacist and technician perceptions of role stress, especially in the categories of role overload, role isolation, and role ambiguity, and less total hours of work lost by pharmacists (54% improved) and technicians (29% improved). The nurses perceived slightly better pharmacy services upon survey, although not statistically significant, and IV solution wastage decreased 5.6%. Clinical pharmacist compliance to standards of practice was unchanged in spite of increased supervisional responsibilities. We were able to show that the pharmacist-technician team design decreased stress and created more efficient pharmacy services.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed2003

[Construction of a pharmacy network that supports home medical care].

Home medical care is recently being promoted thanks to the establishment of the related medical insurance system and by patient choice. Home medical care requires a collaboration of home treatment, home nursing, and drug supply, and within this collaborative network, pharmacists also play the role to supply drugs (dispensing). Drugs that used for home care include injectable agents for pain control or hygiene management. Therefore, pharmacies need to be furnished with clean rooms and clean benches to dispense drugs aseptically. However, because of the enormous costs of capital investment and the uncertainty of the number of patients who will use pharmacies, a very few pharmacies are adequately furnished. The survey has revealed that 76 pharmacies are adequately furnished. It is presumed that home medical care will continuously promoted in the future so a network of pharmacies that can dispense injectable drugs must be set up under the home care support system.

Community Networks↗
PubMed2003

[Construction of a pharmacy network that supports home medical care].

Home medical care is recently being promoted thanks to the establishment of the related medical insurance system and by patient choice. Home medical care requires a collaboration of home treatment, home nursing, and drug supply, and within this collaborative network, pharmacists also play the role to supply drugs (dispensing). Drugs that used for home care include injectable agents for pain control or hygiene management. Therefore, pharmacies need to be furnished with clean rooms and clean benches to dispense drugs aseptically. However, because of the enormous costs of capital investment and the uncertainty of the number of patients who will use pharmacies, a very few pharmacies are adequately furnished. The survey has revealed that 76 pharmacies are adequately furnished. It is presumed that home medical care will continously promoted in the future so a network of pharmacies that can dispense injectable drugs must be set up under the home care support system.

Community Networks↗
PubMed1991

National survey of quality assurance activities for pharmacy-prepared sterile products in hospitals.

The results of a survey of pharmacy department activities for quality assurance in the preparation of sterile drug products in short-term, nonfederal hospitals are reported. A questionnaire was mailed in March and April 1991 to pharmacy directors at hospitals that had indicated in ASHP's 1990 national survey of pharmaceutical services that they had formal quality assurance processes for intravenous admixture preparation. The adjusted gross sample size was 465. The net response rate was 71% (330 usable replies). Nearly all respondents indicated that sterile drug products were prepared extemporaneously in their departments; 61% reported batch preparation of such products. Both pharmacists and pharmacy technicians prepared sterile products. Respondents identified which guidelines were used in developing departmental policies and procedures for sterile product preparation. Specific areas were identified in which educational programs for pharmacists are needed; the most frequently indicated area (85%) was principles of aseptic technique. A majority of respondents used the following means for the orientation and training of personnel who prepare sterile products: aseptic technique lectures or videotapes, on-the-job training, written policies and procedures, and direct observation of technique. Almost all of the respondents (99%) had laminar-airflow hoods in their departments. Three fourths of those respondents indicated that laminar-airflow hoods were located in a limited-access room. Half of the respondents reported that laminar-airflow hoods were located certified every six months and that prefilters were changed monthly. Less than one third sampled environmental areas for microbial contamination. Less than one third of the surveyed hospitals routinely sampled sterile products for microbial contamination or pyrogens. Almost half indicated the absence of policies and procedures for testing chemical purity, drug concentration, sterility, pyrogenicity, or the environment for sterile preparations. Few respondents indicated the use of sterilization techniques other than microbial filtration, which was used by 32% of pharmacies involved in extemporaneous preparation and 16% of those involved in batch preparation. About 90% of the respondents used published references and manufacturers' recommendations to determine expiration dating. This survey revealed that certain quality assurance procedures related to pharmacy-prepared sterile products need major improvement.

Drug Compounding↗
PubMed1989

Educational differentiation of the pharmacy work force.

A model of the pharmacy work force in which pharmacists are differentiated and quantified on the basis of their professional education is described, and the model is used to analyze work force data for 1978 and 1987. The educational differentiation of the pharmacy work force was represented by a three-tiered pyramid in which the base, second, and third levels comprised pharmacists with a B.S. degree, a Pharm.D. degree, and residency or fellowship training, respectively. The number of pharmacists at each level was tabulated for 1978 and 1987 by using data from the National Center for Health Statistics, the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, ASHP, and other sources. In 1987, as in 1978, more than 90% of pharmacists had no formal training beyond the B.S. degree. However, the proportion of pharmacists with Pharm.D. degrees did increase from 1 in 30 to 1 in 16, and proportionately more pharmacists were receiving post-Pharm.D. training. Large state and regional differences were seen in the number and educational level of pharmacists. Differentiation in the physician and nursing work forces was examined; the physician work force was highly specialized, but nurses showed a more balanced differentiation. An increase in the demand for postgraduate training of pharmacists was projected. The educational differentiation model shows that the pharmacy work force is highly undifferentiated and that education at the Pharm.D. level should be emphasized. Such emphasis will increase the demand for residency and fellowship programs and improve the image of pharmacy as a profession.

Education, Medical↗
PubMed1988

Future practice roles in pharmacy.

The blurring of distinctions between community and institutional pharmacy practice is described, and future practice roles are discussed. As ambulatory-care services, such as home-care programs, long-term-care programs, and nursing-care facilities, assume greater importance in the provision of health care, the roles of hospital-based and community-based pharmacists become blurred. The roles of health-care providers are changing from an inter-professional perspective also. Pharmacist prescribing, physician dispensing, and therapeutic interchange are examples. The issue of therapeutic interchange, as a collaborative arrangement between pharmacists and physicians, will become crucial as managed-care systems grow if pharmacists are to retain responsibility for drug-use control. Challenges facing both institutional and community pharmacy in the future include meeting man-power needs, ensuring quality educational opportunities for pharmacy students and practicing pharmacists, and justifying the cost benefits of progressive pharmaceutical services. The pharmacy profession should set standards of quality for pharmaceutical services in emerging care settings. Although practice roles in pharmacy are changing along with the health-care system, pharmacists in all settings should work together in furthering their common goal of providing quality patient care.

Costs and Cost Analysis↗
PubMed1987

Workload measurement of a clinical pharmacy residency program.

The types of activities performed by four clinical pharmacy residents and the amount of time spent on each activity were studied using a workload measurement system. A workload measurement system was developed to record all activities performed by pharmacy residents. The system included 50 activities that were grouped under 11 general headings; residents' time was divided among 10 major areas of service. The following data were collected and analyzed each month during the six-month study period: units of work, weighted units of work, total productive hours, total service hours, and productivity. The residents participated in 39 of 50 clinical pharmacy activities. Activities performed most frequently included nursing-home-care-unit drug reviews, drug monitoring, and rounds. The most time-consuming activities were clinical education, administration, and drug-use review. Productivity ranged from 80 to 115% and was influenced by residents' assigned rotations. A workload measurement system for quantifying the time spent by residents performing various clinical pharmacy activities provided objective data that were used to restructure a clinical pharmacy residency program.

California↗
PubMed1987

Technicians and the future of pharmacy.

Ways in which pharmacists and pharmacy technicians can grow professionally to fulfill pharmacy's fundamental responsibility for appropriate drug use in patients are described. From the 1985 "Hilton Head Conference" on directions for clinical practice in pharmacy, the idea grew that pharmacists' traditional functions should be melded with a clinical orientation to provide pharmacy's maximum contribution to patient care. When the focus shifts from discrete activities of individual pharmacists to overall responsibilities of the department, each pharmacist and technician can see his or her contribution to the clinical endeavor; technicians assigned with a pharmacist to a specific group of patients are likely to take a more active interest in their jobs. Instead of ratios, patient outcome and job satisfaction should be the determinants of staffing patterns. Delineation of roles as judgmental or nonjudgmental should be replaced by clear job descriptions and procedures and an understanding of the complementary roles of pharmacists and technicians. Important elements in technician training include seminars presented by professional staff members and planned jointly by pharmacists and technicians, departmentwide seminars, policies that encourage technicians to join and participate in professional organizations, and liberal tuition-reimbursement policies. For career advancement, the pharmacy organizational structure might contain three levels: technician trainee, technician, and technician specialist. Pharmacists and technicians can overcome barriers between them by realizing the enormous growth potential and value of the services that both provide.

Job Satisfaction↗
PubMed1985

ASHP members' concepts of institutional pharmacy in the year 2000.

Trends in institutional pharmacy practice were identified, and ASHP members' views of these trends were evaluated in a futures study. A list of statements concerning the practice of institutional pharmacy in the year 2000 was developed using a modified Delphi method. A random sample of 3000 active ASHP members received the questionnaire and were asked to estimate the probability that each of the 42 statements would occur by the year 2000. The responses were analyzed to reduce the number of variables to common factors. A total of 1276 of the returned questionnaires were usable. Six factors were identified: pharmacy-medicine linkage, advanced training or degree, drug administration, quality assurance and accreditation, supportive personnel, and pharmacy-nursing conflict. There were differences in the mean values of responses of items related to various factors when they were compared by sex, age, position held, degree held, and residency training. The key trends predicted were that advanced training or degrees will be necessities in the year 2000, institutional practice will be composed of multiple tracks, postgraduate education will be required of clinicians and administrators, turf conflict with nurses will increase, and accreditation standards and other safeguards for quality health care will continue to be required and will increase. The trends in how ASHP members conceptualized the future of their profession can provide insight for individuals developing programs in pharmacy education, health-care administration, institutional practice, and the pharmaceutical industry.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

Health care and hospital pharmacy in Sweden.

Health care and hospital pharmacy in Sweden are discussed. The system of drug distribution in Sweden is reviewed, and the following functions of hospital pharmacies are discussed; drug and hygiene committees, inspection activities, drug information and educational services, radiopharmacy, and research activities. Pharmacy education, drug manufacturing, and Apoteksbolaget--The National Corporation of Swedish Pharmacies--are also discussed. Future developments in hospital pharmacy are expected to include increased sales to outpatients, a restructuring of the drug supply within outpatient care and recommendations from the hospital drug committees on outpatient care.

Delivery of Health Care↗
PubMed1982

Role of the director of pharmacy: the first four months.

Specific goals and tasks that should be addressed during a pharmacy director's first four months of employment are reviewed. Individuals must prepare themselves for the director's role, find the right job, and negotiate an acceptable benefits package. During the first two months as director of pharmacy, an individual should primarily work on gathering facts and assessing the department's operations without making many changes. Interrelationships within the hospital should be studied, and many pharmacy and hospital documents should be reviewed so that the director has an understanding of past history. The director should interview all employees of the department and work as a staff pharmacist for one to two days in each area. During the third and fourth months, the new director will need to determine the extent of authority, develop working relationships with key individuals, assess the pharmacy-management team, develop a data-collection system, learn the processes for making changes, and consolidate authority. A major document, containing a departmental-operations analysis, statement of philosophy, goals, and approach to goal completion, should be the culmination of the four months. The director of pharmacy must meld professional, administrative, and financial activities; the final determinant of success will be the director's ability to implement and follow through with proposed changes.

Administrative Personnel↗