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PubMed1985

The influence of amprolium and butynorate on growth rate and feed utilization by large white turkeys.

Four feeding trials were conducted in which Large White turkeys were fed diets containing either amprolium or butynorate to 8 or 9 weeks of age to female and male turkeys, respectively. Diets fed during the study contained from 0 to 10% supplemental fat to provide a range of dietary energy levels. Poults were maintained on built-up wood shavings litter with no attempts to induce coccidiosis. Turkeys fed diets with amprolium did not grow as well or convert feed as efficiently as those fed butynorate at 8 or 9 weeks of age when the additives were withdrawn. However, at market weights or feed utilization between turkeys fed the two different anticoccidials.

Amprolium↗
PubMed1987

Efficacy of halofuginone as a coccidiostat for turkeys.

Large White male turkeys were raised to 20 wk of age on diets with varying kinds and levels of coccidiosis drug protection. Dietary treatments included unmedicated control (UMC), amprolium (AMP, 125 mg/kg), and 3 levels of halofuginone hydrobromide (HAL, during 0 to 4 and 4 to 8 wk of age, in 3.3; 3.1.5; and 1.5,1.5 mg/kg, respectively). Turkeys on these five treatments were exposed to coccidial oocysts at 14 days of age and again at 61 days of age; turkeys in an identical five treatments were not exposed until 61 days of age. At 28 days, nonexposed turkeys gained well and similarly, whereas exposed UMC showed poor growth and high mortality. At 56 days, regardless of exposure, UMC were lightest, AMP birds were intermediate, and birds in all HAL treatments were heaviest. Similarities in results of exposed and nonexposed birds suggests that nonexposed birds became exposed through tracking of oocysts in the room. Lesion scores of those challenged with oocysts at 61 days showed that all treatments had adequate resistance to coccidiosis. At 20 weeks of age, combining both exposure methods, birds fed HAL (dosage 3.1.5 or 1.5, 1.5 mg/kg) were significantly heavier than UMC and AMP treatments.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed1988

Daily output of spermatozoa and extragonadal spermatozoal reserves in turkeys.

Daily spermatozoal output (DSO) was estimated by determining the total number of spermatozoa in ejaculates of male line breeder turkeys ejaculated daily for 15 days. The DSO was constant at 520 million spermatozoa after the first 6 days of semen collection. Testicular spermatozoal reserves (TSR) and extragonadal sperm reserves (EGR) were measured 24 h after the last semen collection from turkeys ejaculated 1 x/day for 15 consecutive days (ejaculated) and 21 days after the last semen collection from turkeys previously ejaculated 1 x/wk for 12 wk (rested). The TSR concentrations were similar (P greater than .05) for ejaculated and rested groups, respectively: 117 x 10(6) and 119 x 10(6)/g for right testis; 127 x 10(6) and 135 x 10(6)/g for left testis. The total TSR were also similar (P greater than .05): 3,308 x 10(6) (ejaculated) and 4,343 x 10(6) (rested). However, EGR for ejaculated and rested groups were significantly different, with the following values, respectively: ductus deferens, 3,160 x 10(6) and 10,320 x 10(6) (P = .0005); epididymis, 58 x 10(6) and 204 x 10(6) (P less than .004); total EGR, 3,248 x 10(6) and 10,524 x 10(6) (P less than .005). This study shows that although TSR was not affected by daily semen collection, EGR was depleted by 70% of the rested value (P less than .005) when the turkeys were ejaculated daily for 15 days.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Niacin requirement of turkey poults fed a corn-soybean meal diet from 1 to 21 days of age.

Nicholas Large White turkey poults were used in three experiments to reevaluate the niacin requirement between 1 and 21 days of age. In Experiment 1, 384 turkey poults were assigned to six dietary treatments, 0, 5.5, 11.0, 22.0, 44.0, and 88 mg of supplemental niacin/kg basal diet. Eight replicates of eight birds/pen (equal numbers of male and female poults) were used per diet. In Experiment 2, 320 birds were assigned to the same dietary treatment as in the first experiment except for the 44.0-mg niacin treatment. In Experiment 3, 288 turkey poults were assigned to six dietary treatments, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 mg of supplemental niacin/kg of feed. The basal diet with no added niacin was a corn-soybean meal diet calculated to contain 28.5% crude protein. The analyses of tryptophan were .35, .35, and .34%, and of niacin were 26, 26, and 23 mg/kg in the basal diets of Experiments 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Using the broken-line technique to determine the minimum niacin requirement for maximum body growth at 21 days of age, and taking into consideration the dietary supplemental niacin needed to prevent leg abnormalities, it was estimated that the minimum dietary niacin requirement for turkey poults from Day 1 to 21 days of age was 44 mg/kg of feed. Feed intake was maximized, and feed conversion was improved in a parallel fashion to growth. The incidence of leg disorders decreased in number and severity as supplemental niacin was increased in the diet.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed1989

Effects of dietary protein and added fat on turkeys varying in strain, sex, and age. 2. Carcass characteristics.

The effects of dietary protein and added fat on carcass characteristics were determined at various ages for female and male turkeys and from three strains: Nicholas Large White (N), Jaindl Large White (JL), and Jaindl Medium White (JM). A total of 1,350 turkeys was divided into 36 pens and fed diets containing 0, 5, or 10% added fat and standard or high protein levels from 8 wk of age to time of processing. One-fourth of the females and one-third of the males from each pen were processed at 16, 20, 24, or 28 wk and at 20, 24, or 28 wk, respectively. Breast meat weight, expressed as a percentage of carcass weight, was greater for JM and JL turkeys than for N turkeys (34.6, 33.9, and 31.7%, respectively), increased with age (31.9, 34.1, and 34.2% at 20, 24, and 28 wk of age, respectively), was greater for females than for males (34.2 and 32.6%, respectively), decreased with added fat (33.7, 33.4, and 33.1% for 0, 5, and 10% fat, respectively) and increased with a 3% addition of dietary protein (33.2 and 33.6%, respectively).

Age Factors↗
PubMed1990

Normal growth and white blood cell development in large white turkey embryos.

Two experiments were conducted to determine normal growth and hematological values for turkey embryos. In each experiment, differential white blood cell counts, hematocrits, sex, and body weights were recorded for 10 Nicholas Large White turkey embryos beginning at Day 12 and at select days thereafter through Day 25 of incubation. Because there were so few white blood cells present in the turkey embryonic blood, differential white blood cell counts were scored by two observers. Each observer counted for a fixed time, 5 min, rather than to a specific number of cells. A significant difference (P less than or equal to .05) due to embryo age was found for BW, hematocrit, heterophils, lymphocytes, basophils, and total white blood cell counts. Significant differences due to sex of the embryo or day by sex interaction were not found for BW, hematocrit, heterophils, eosinophils, basophils, and total white blood cell counts. A significant day by sex interaction was found for lymphocytes. No significant differences were observed between either of the main effects or their interaction for the monocyte totals. The predominant circulating white blood cell in turkey embryos was the heterophil not the lymphocyte.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

The effect of dietary iodine on the hatchability of eggs from two commercial strains of turkeys.

Supplemental dietary iodine (3.5 mg/kg) was fed to two commercial strains [British United Turkeys (B) and Nicholas (N)] of turkey breeder hens. The basal diet contained .7 mg/kg of iodine. Observations were made on hen body weights, feed consumption, hatchability, egg weights, and egg functional characteristics to test the hypothesis that there are differences between commercial strains of turkey breeder hens in the dietary iodine requirement for reproductive success. Supplemental iodine decreased (P less than or equal to .05) functional egg characteristics of both strains. Egg production and hatchability were influenced by an interaction between strains and dietary iodine (P less than or equal to .05). In Strain B hens, egg production and hatchability declined (P less than or equal to .05) when hens were fed supplemental iodine but in Strain N hens no effects on hatchability were observed and egg production increased (P less than .05) with iodine supplementation. The decline in hatchability of eggs from Strain B hens was due to significant (P less than or equal to .05) increases in embryonic mortality during the 1st wk of incubation and during pipping. The treatments resulting in depressed hatchability caused embryos to rely more (P less than or equal to .05) on glycogenolysis than gluconeogenesis during pipping and hatching. The Strain B embryos utilized gluconeogenesis more during pipping (P less than or equal to .05) than Strain N embryos and embryos from Strain B iodine-fed hens had a lower rate of gluconeogenesis than those from hens not fed iodine. It is concluded that there are differences among strains of turkey breeder hens in their dietary iodine requirement for optimal hatchability.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1992

Influence of dietary taurine on performance and fat retention in broilers and turkey poults fed varying levels of fat.

Taurine, an amino acid synthesized from Met, primarily functions in bile acid conjugation. Four experiments were conducted to determine whether Tau supplementation of broiler cockerels and female turkey poults to 3 wk of age would influence performance and fat retention at different levels of dietary fat. In these experiments, Tau was added at 0 or .8% to a corn and soybean meal basal diet with dietary poultry fat added at 0, 5, or 10%. Taurine did not affect BW gain of broiler cockerels; however, in one experiment feed efficiency was improved (P less than .01) during the 1st wk and fat retention was improved (P less than .06) at 7 days of age. In experiments with turkey poults, dietary Tau did not affect weight gain but improved feed efficiency (P less than .01) during the 1st wk and decreased overall feed efficiency (P less than .01) in one experiment. Improvement of fat retention by Tau at 14 days was significant (P less than .02) in one experiment and approached significance (P less than .07) in the other experiment. Fat supplementation of both the broiler and turkey diets significantly (P less than .05) improved weight gain, feed efficiency, and fat retention. Supplementary Tau appears to have little effect on performance of broilers and turkeys.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1992

Cross-reactivity of sperm-binding proteins from chicken, turkey, and duck oocytes.

Binding and penetration of spermatozoa through the perivitelline layer (PL) overlying the hen's ovum have been studied more frequently in the chicken than in other domesticated avian species. Species-specific action of the binding process was tested using an in vitro competition assay in which spermatozoa from the cock, tom, and drake were pretreated with solubilized PL protein (PL-P) from the chicken, turkey, and duck ovum. Spermatozoa were pretreated with PL-P for 20 min at 39 C and co-incubated in vitro with a .5 cm2 section of intact PL from the homologous sperm donor species for an additional 10 min at 39 C. Effectiveness of PL-P pretreatment was assessed quantitatively by the number of spermatozoa bound to the PL, and was expressed as a percentage of the control [minimum essential medium (MEM) pretreated sperm = 100%] binding. Pretreatment of cock spermatozoa with chicken, turkey, or duck PL-P resulted in 21, 40, and 48% binding, respectively. Similarly, pretreatment of tom spermatozoa with PL-P from chicken, turkey, or duck resulted in 45, 51, and 39% binding, and that of drake spermatozoa resulted in 38, 32, and 21% binding, respectively. Incubation of spermatozoa with PL-P from chicken, turkey, and duck ova indicated cross-reactivity and suppression of binding between avian spermatozoa and PL that was not species-specific.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Increased redness in turkey breast muscle induced by fusarial culture materials.

Short-term feeding trials with experimentally moldy rice (10% of diet) or corn (12.5%) were carried out on turkey poults to screen for toxigenic Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus, which were recovered from corn or commercial turkey feed. A major finding was that culture materials of some fusaria increased the redness of turkey breast muscle without causing obvious hemorrhages either in the musculature or in the internal organs. Corn culture but not rice culture of Fusarium moniliforme (M-1325) depressed body weight gains, feed utilization, and heart weights (P = .01). The increased redness (reddish discoloration) could lead to the depreciation of fresh turkey muscle product.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1994

Strain comparison of turkey egg components.

Two experiments were conducted to quantify the composition of turkey hatching eggs in relation to strain of bird and age of breeder. In one experiment, 20 Nicholas and British United Turkeys of America (BUTA) eggs produced at 3, 12, and 24 wk of production were examined for physical and chemical components. Eggs from Nicholas hens were always some 4 g heavier (P < .05) due essentially to a larger albumen content. Although absolute components increased over time (P < .05), there were few changes in proportional composition (P > .05). Eggs from BUTA turkeys initially contained more yolk protein (P < .05). At 12 and 24 wk of production, eggs from Nicholas hens changed most rapidly and at these ages contained more yolk protein than the BUTA strain eggs (P < .05). At the end of the production cycle, BUTA eggs contained less lipid and protein in the yolk (P < .05). For both strains there was an increase in stearic acid content of yolk lipid with increased breeder age. In a second experiment, comparable studies were conducted on eggs obtained from male and female line BUTA breeding stock. Although male line eggs were heavier (87 vs 78 g), the smaller female line eggs exhibited proportionally more yolk (P < .05), as absolute yolk weight was similar for both strains (22.4 vs 22.5 g). It was concluded that only minor differences exist in components of eggs from different turkey strains.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1994

Perfluorochemical emulsions as turkey semen diluents: effects of varying aeration treatments and aqueous phase on fertilizing capacity of semen stored for twenty-four hours.

In a preliminary study, it was found that aeration of turkey semen diluted 1:2 with a phosphate buffer diluent (PD) and stored for 24 h at 12 to 13 C improved the fertilizing capacity relative to that obtained from PD-diluted semen that was not aerated (63.8 and 14.0%, respectively). Emulsifying PD with an equal volume of the oxygen carrier perfluorobutyltetrahydrofurane (FC-80) and using the resulting emulsion as a diluent further increased the fertility (86.6%), but the best fertility was from unstored, undiluted semen (98.0%). The efficacy of using emulsions of aqueous diluents with FC-80 for 24-h cold storage of turkey semen was studied in detail. When semen diluted with PD:FC-80 emulsions received varying levels of O2 for aeration, the fertilizing capacity of semen aerated with 60 or 100% O2 (86.1 and 89.6%, respectively) was significantly greater (P < or = .05) than that obtained using 20% oxygen (78.5%). The FC-80 emulsions that were made using commercially available diluents in place of the PD were tested with 100% O2 aeration during storage. The percentage fertility obtained from emulsions made with Beltsville Poultry Semen Extender or Lake's 7.1 "mm" Diluent was significantly greater (P < or = .05) than that for PD or Minnesota Turkey Growers Association Extender (90.5 and 90.2% vs 77.6 and 72.6%, respectively). This research demonstrates that perfluorochemicals may be useful for cold storage of turkey semen when emulsified with optimum diluents and aerated with > or = 60% O2.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

The effect of beak trimming on two strains of commercial tom turkeys. 1. Performance traits.

Two commercial strains (Strains A and B) of tom turkeys were either beak trimmed or left with intact beaks. These strains responded similarly to beak trimming for performance traits, with the exception of a higher incidence of beak-inflicted injuries among Strain B toms with intact beaks. Turkeys with trimmed beaks had higher body weights at 8, 12, and 16 wk. Feed efficiency was better in beak-trimmed birds from 4 to 8 wk, 12 to 16 wk, and 0 to 18 wk. Beak treatment did not effect mortality. Leg abnormalities caused the majority of culling or resulted in death or culling from beak-inflicted injuries. Beak trimming seems to be a beneficial practice in tom turkeys because feed efficiency of beak-trimmed toms was improved and injuries were reduced in a strain that tended to exhibit a high degree of beak-inflicted injuries. The results suggest that the need for beak trimming tom turkeys may be reduced when feed efficiency of toms with intact beaks is improved.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Effect of environmental variables in turkey confinement houses on airborne Aspergillus and mycoflora composition.

Environmental conditions and airborne mycoflora were measured concurrently in 10 turkey confinement houses during warm and cold weather. The following variables in the environment were measured: numbers of feed- and litter-associated yeast and mold fungi, temperature, relative humidity, airspeed, carbon dioxide and ammonia concentration, airborne bacteria, and airborne particulate mass, particle number, and particle size distribution. Winter air in turkey confinement houses contained significantly higher concentrations of Aspergillus, Scopulariopsis, and Mucor sp. and significantly lower concentrations of Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Alternaria sp. when compared with summer air. Significantly greater numbers of Mucor sp. were recovered per cubic meter of air where the current turkey flock was present less than 100 d when compared to houses where the current flock resided 100 d or more. Management decisions regarding control of the internal environment of turkey confinement houses apparently influence airborne mycoflora composition.

Air Microbiology↗
PubMed1995

The role of defeathering in the contamination of turkey skin by Salmonella species and Listeria monocytogenes.

This study was undertaken to determine whether the incidence of either Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes on turkeys at three commercial processors could be related to the type of defeathering system: 1) conventional, 58 C common bath scald; 2) kosher, 7 C common bath scald; or 3) steam-spray, 62 C nonimmersion scald. Flocks were sampled before defeathering, after defeathering, and after chill at each facility. The incidence of Salmonella-positive turkeys significantly increased subsequent to conventional defeathering (10 positive out of 14) as compared with before defeathering (3/14). The number of Salmonella-positive carcasses following kosher (0/14) and steam-spray (2/14) defeathering were similar to the number of Salmonella-positive carcasses found prior to defeathering (1/14 and 3/14, respectively). The incidence of Salmonella-positive carcasses following chill was slightly lower, but not significantly different than the number of Salmonella-positive carcasses found immediately following defeathering at all processors (8/14, 0/14, 1/14 for conventional, kosher, and steam-spray processors, respectively). Although L. monocytogenes was detected on turkeys sampled before chilling (2/10, kosher) and after chilling (8/14, kosher; 1/14, conventional), no L. monocytogenes was detected on turkeys at any of the processors prior to the evisceration process. Flocks with high aerobic plate counts prior to processing were more likely to contain Salmonella-positive birds throughout processing. Aerobic plate counts of all flocks were similar after chill whether or not Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes were detected.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Replacing protein in corn-soybean turkey diets with methionine and lysine.

The extent to which dietary protein can be minimized by using Met and Lys supplements for market turkeys has been investigated in three experiments involving 2,750 birds. Large White (Nicholas) male turkey poults were fed corn-soybean meal diets of varying protein level to supply Lys from 80 to 120 of NRC (1984) from day-old to 18 wk of age. Performance with diets of 90% NRC Lys was equal to that with diets of higher Lys, provided that SAA were at 100% of NRC. Up to .2% Lys.HCl could be substituted into the 100 or 90% of NRC diets with no depression in performance, suggesting that the other essential amino acids were present in adequate amounts. When turkeys were fed diets of 85% of NRC (1984) Lys, maximum growth and breast meat yield were obtained with supplemental SAA at 100% during 0 to 18 wk of age and Lys at 100% during 12 to 18 wk of age. The requirements for other amino acids were supplied by diets formulated to provide 85% of the Lys requirement from protein. These values were for turkeys subjected to 18 C during final growout; they were not adequate in warmer temperatures.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2000

Reduction of normal flora by irradiation and its effect on the ability of Listeria monocytogenes to multiply on ground turkey stored at 7 degrees C when packaged under a modified atmosphere.

Listeria monocytogenes did not multiply faster during storage at 7 degrees C on irradiated than on nonirradiated raw ground turkey, and there was a concentration-dependent inhibition of its multiplication by CO2. Ground turkey was gamma irradiated at 5 degrees C to 0, 1.5, and 2.5 kGy and inoculated (approximately 100 CFU/g) after irradiation with a cocktail of L. monocytogenes ATCC 7644, 15313, 49594, and 43256. The meat was then packaged in air-permeable pouches or under atmospheres containing 30 or 53% CO2, 19% O2, and 51 or 24% N2 and stored at 7 degrees C for up to 28 days. A dose of 2.5 kGy extended the time for the total plate count (TPC) to reach 10(7) CFU/g from 4 to 19 days compared to that for nonirradiated turkey in air-permeable pouches. Following a dose of 2.5 kGy at the end of the 28-day study, the TPCs were 10(6.42) and 10(4.98) under 25% and 50% CO2 atmospheres, respectively. Under air, 30% CO2, and 53% CO2 atmospheres, the populations of L. monocytogenes after 19 days incubation were 10(4.89), 10(3.60), and 10(2.67) CFU/g. The populations of lactic acid bacteria and anaerobic or facultative bacteria were also reduced by irradiation. Irradiating ground turkey did not decrease its safety when it was contaminated following processing with L. monocytogenes.

Air↗
PubMed2004

Campylobacter colonization of sibling turkey flocks reared under different management conditions.

Uncertainty exists concerning the key factors contributing to Campylobacter colonization of poultry, especially the possible role of vertical transmission from breeder hens to young birds. A longitudinal study of Campylobacter colonization was performed in two sibling pairs of turkey flocks (four flocks total). Each pair of sibling flocks shared breeder hen populations and was obtained from the same hatchery. One flock of each pair was grown on a commercial farm, and the other was grown in an instructional demonstration unit (Teaching Animal Unit [TAU]). Flocks were located within a 60-mi (96.8-km) radius. The time of placement, feed formulations, stocking density, and general husbandry were the same for both flocks, and each flock was processed at a commercial processing plant following standard feed withdrawal and transport protocols. Both flocks grown on the commercial farms became colonized with Campylobacter between weeks 2 and 3 and remained colonized until processing. Between 80 and 90% of isolates were Campylobacter coli, and the remainder were Campylobacter jejuni. In contrast, neither C. coli nor C. jejuni were isolated from either of the TAU flocks at any time during the production cycle. None of the fla types of Campylobacter from the breeders that provided poults to one of the commercial flocks matched those from the progeny. These results failed to provide evidence for vertical transmission and indicate that this type of transmission either did not occur or was not sufficient to render the TAU turkey flocks Campylobacter positive. Management practices such as proper litter maintenance, controlled traffic between the TAU farm and other turkey flocks, and other less well-defined aspects of turkey production were likely responsible for the absence of Campylobacter in the TAU flocks before harvest.

Animal Husbandry↗