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PubMed2004

Increased concentrations of lipoprotein(a), circadian rhythms and metabolic reactions evoked by acute myocardial infarction, associated with acute reactions in relation to large breakfasts.

Of 54 patients with acute coronary artery disease (CAD) that were included in this study, 41 patients had acute myocardial infarction (AMI), five patients possible MI, four patients unstable angina and the remaining four angina pectoris. The control subjects (n = 85) were randomly selected from the general population of the city of Moradabad of similar age range after exclusion for CAD (n = 9), diabetes (n = 6) and excess intake of trans fatty acids (n = 20). The incidence of lipoprotein(a) excess (> 30 mg/dl; 42.6 vs 24.7%; P < 0.05) and mean concentration of lipoprotein(a) (Lp[a], 6.4 mg/dl, 95% confidence interval: 2.8-10.5; P < 0.05) was significantly greater in the acute CAD group compared with control subjects. Mean total cholesterol and triglycerides were significantly higher and mean nitrite level lower in the study group as compared with the control group.There was a significant greater incidence of cardiac events in the second quarter of the day compared with the fourth quarter. Lp(a), triglycerides, blood glucose, plasma insulin, malondialdehyde, diene conjugates, TBARS and TNF-alpha and IL-6 levels, which were significantly greater during the acute phase, showed a significant decline and serum nitrite and coenzyme Q demonstrated an increase at 4 weeks of follow-up when the acute reactions evoked by MI had been controlled. Large breakfasts were a predisposing factor for cardiac events in the second quarter of the day and it was significantly associated with metabolic reactions. The findings indicate that acute reactions as a result or as circadian rhythms appear to be important in the pathogenesis of AMI-associated complications and that a large breakfast in association with nitrite deficiency may further trigger the circadian rhythms. However, more studies in a larger number of subjects would be necessary in order to confirm our findings.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2003

The Garden of Eden--plant based diets, the genetic drive to conserve cholesterol and its implications for heart disease in the 21st century.

It is likely that plant food consumption throughout much of human evolution shaped the dietary requirements of contemporary humans. Diets would have been high in dietary fiber, vegetable protein, plant sterols and associated phytochemicals, and low in saturated and trans-fatty acids and other substrates for cholesterol biosynthesis. To meet the body's needs for cholesterol, we believe genetic differences and polymorphisms were conserved by evolution, which tended to raise serum cholesterol levels. As a result modern man, with a radically different diet and lifestyle, especially in middle age, is now recommended to take medications to lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Experimental introduction of high intakes of viscous fibers, vegetable proteins and plant sterols in the form of a possible Myocene diet of leafy vegetables, fruit and nuts, lowered serum LDL-cholesterol in healthy volunteers by over 30%, equivalent to first generation statins, the standard cholesterol-lowering medications. Furthermore, supplementation of a modern therapeutic diet in hyperlipidemic subjects with the same components taken as oat, barley and psyllium for viscous fibers, soy and almonds for vegetable proteins and plant sterol-enriched margarine produced similar reductions in LDL-cholesterol as the Myocene-like diet and reduced the majority of subjects' blood lipids concentrations into the normal range. We conclude that reintroduction of plant food components, which would have been present in large quantities in the plant based diets eaten throughout most of human evolution into modern diets can correct the lipid abnormalities associated with contemporary eating patterns and reduce the need for pharmacological interventions.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

A quantitative assessment of the influence of permanent kinks on the mixing behavior of phospholipids in cholesterol-rich bilayers.

The mixing behavior of a phospholipid containing a cis-cyclopropyl moiety (1) with one that contains two myristoyl groups (3a) has been investigated in fluid bilayers via the nearest-neighbor recognition (NNR) method. In the absence of cholesterol, these lipids mix ideally. In the presence of cholesterol, they show a modest preference for homo-phospholipid association. A trans-form of 1 (i.e., 2) was found to have similar behavior, except that the influence of cholesterol in promoting homo-phospholipid association was greater. Similar results have been found in membranes in which 3a is replaced with a phospholipid bearing two palmitoyol chains (3b). In this case, the effect of the kink is approximately twice as great. The implications of these findings, with respect to the "trans-fatty acid debate", are briefly discussed

Cholesterol↗
PubMed1997

Antioxidant effects of lovastatin and vitamin E on experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits.

The effects of the administration of vitamin E (10 mg/day) plus lovastatin (2 mg/day; group A, n = 10), lovastatin alone (2 mg/day; group B, n = 10), and placebo (group C, n = 10) were compared over 24 weeks in a randomized, single-blind controlled trial. All groups of rabbits received a trans fatty acid (TFA)-rich diet (5-10 g/day) for 36 weeks. Treatment with vitamin E plus lovastatin (group A) and lovastatin (group B) started after 12 weeks of administration of TFA-rich diet was associated with a significant but similar decline in serum cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and triglycerides in both groups at 36 weeks. Lipid peroxides and diene conjugates showed a significant decline in association with a significant increase in the plasma level of vitamin E in group A rabbits at 36 weeks. However, the lovastatin group B showed a lesser but significant decrease in lipid peroxides and diene conjugates at 36 weeks, indicating that lovastatin may have antioxidant activity. In control group C, the increase in blood lipids and oxidative stress at 36 weeks was much greater than the decrease in groups A and B. After experimental lipid peroxidation at 24 weeks in all of the rabbits, 2 of 10 group B and 3 of 10 group C rabbits died due to coronary thrombosis; there were no deaths in group A. Thus antioxidant therapy with vitamin E can provide protection against death due to free radical stress. Aortic lipids and sudanophilia indicating athorosclorosis were significantly lower in groups A and B than in group C. The atherosclerotic coronary plaque sizes were significantly smaller in group A (18.5 +/- 3.6 microns) than in groups B (41.6 +/- 4.2 microns) and C (85 +/- 6.7 microns). Aortic plaque sizes were also smaller in group A than in group B and C. It is possible that antioxidant therapy with vitamin E, as an adjunct to lipid lowering with lovastatin, can provide additional benefit in the inhibition of oxidative stress and atherosclerosis. The antioxidant activity of lovastatin has not been reported, to our knowledge.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Fruit and vegetables consumption in relation to health and diet of medical students in Crete, Greece.

In Greece, prevalence of cardiovascular disease has been increasing during the last few decades. From a public health point of view, it is important to identify lifestyle practices associated with cardiovascular disease risk factors. As part of the Clinical Nutrition course at the University of Crete School of Medicine, 507 medical students (292 men, 215 women) were examined during the period 1995-2001. Individual 24-hour dietary recalls were taken, lifestyle questionnaires were completed, and anthropometric and serum lipid measurements were performed. Fruits and vegetables were consumed by 90% of men (370 +/- 275 g/day) and 94% of women (354 +/- 283 g/day). Among non/ex-smokers who ate fruit and vegetables, 41% consumed > or = 400 g/day, compared to 31% of current smokers (p = 0.05). The risk for high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) < 35 mg/dL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) > 130 mg/dL, and total cholesterol/HDL-C ratio (TC:HDL-C) > or = 5 decreased with increasing quartile of fruit and vegetables consumption (trend p < 0.01). Fruit and vegetable intake was favorably related to intake of dietary fiber, calcium, magnesium, potassium, folate, and vitamins C, E, A, B1 and B6, and inversely related to saturated and trans fatty acids and cholesterol. Prospective studies should be performed within the general young adult population to assess the long-term effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on chronic disease risk development.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Overeating: the health risks.

Overeating is a relative term. It refers to the consumption of an energy intake that is inappropriately large for a given energy expenditure, thus, leading to obesity. There are several key environmental and cultural factors that have converged in the past few decades to markedly increase the risk of both active and passive (inadvertent) overeating. Chief among these are the increased availability and promotion of cheap energy-dense diets (usually high in fat) and the transition toward extremely sedentary lifestyles. The importance of considering these factors together must be stressed. Data ranging from highly controlled metabolic studies to large-scale epidemiological and ecological analysis illustrate the strong interactions between diet and physical activity in relationship to the over-consumption of energy. Overeating of certain specific dietary components may also lead to health risks. Obvious examples are saturated and trans-fatty acids. More recently attention has switched to high glycemic foods and to n-6 fatty acids. Theories that excess consumption of these may be independent risk factors for obesity and ill health remain controversial but merit closer examination and additional research. The main barriers to changing widely prevalent overeating include the following: public and corporate ignorance about the effects of energy-dense diets in inducing passive over-consumption, commercial willfulness concerning energy density and portion sizes, and public ignorance about the profound health effects of inactive lifestyles. These represent key targets for the design of public health initiatives.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Margarine intake and risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Italian women.

OBJECTIVES: Since a relation between trans-fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases has been described, we examined the relationship between margarine intake and nonfatal acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in Italian women. DESIGN: Hospital-based case-control study. SETTING: Northern Italy between 1983 and 1992. SUBJECTS: Cases were 429 women, aged 18-74 y, in hospital with diagnosis of AMI and 866 controls in hospital for acute, non-cardiovascular, non-neoplastic, non-digestive, non-hormone-related conditions. ANALYSIS: Odds ratios (OR), with their 95% confidence intervals (CI), were computed by unconditional multiple logistic regression analysis, including terms for age, education, body mass index, smoking, alcohol and coffee drinking, menopausal status, hormone replacement therapy and history of diabetes, hypertension and hyperlipidemia. RESULTS: Medium or high intake of margarine was associated with an increased risk of AMI (multivariate OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.0-2.2). Analysis in separate strata of covariates indicated that the association was independent of body mass index, history of hypertension and hyperlipidemia, and was greater in older women and in current smokers. CONCLUSIONS: If real, the association with margarine could explain about 6% of AMI in this population of Italian women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

The effect of a biscuit with red palm oil as a source of beta-carotene on the vitamin A status of primary school children: a comparison with beta-carotene from a synthetic source in a randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of a biscuit with red palm oil as a source of beta-carotene on the vitamin A status of primary school children and to compare this with the effect of a biscuit with beta-carotene from a synthetic source. DESIGN: Randomised controlled trial. SETTING: A rural community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. SUBJECTS: A total of 437 primary school children, aged 5--11 y; 400 completed the study. INTERVENTION: Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups, receiving, respectively: (i) a placebo biscuit; (ii) a biscuit with synthetic beta-carotene as a vitamin A fortificant (SB); (iii) a biscuit with red palm oil as a source of beta-carotene (PB); SB and PB supplied 30% of the RDA for vitamin A per serving of three biscuits. Biscuits were distributed daily during the school week; vitamin A status was assessed at baseline and after 3 months. RESULTS: There was a significant improvement in serum retinol compared to the control group in both the SB and PB groups (P<0.005); the treatment effect for the two groups was equivalent (difference in treatment effect 0.62 microg/dl, with a 90% CI -0.33--1.57). CONCLUSIONS: A biscuit with red palm oil as a source of beta-carotene is as effective as a biscuit with synthetic beta-carotene in improving the vitamin A status of primary school children. The additional qualities of red palm oil (ie no trans fatty acids; rich source of antioxidants) make it an excellent alternative fortificant for addressing vitamin A deficiency.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed2005

Phylloquinone intake as a marker for coronary heart disease risk but not stroke in women.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the feasibility of using phylloquinone intake as a marker for coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke risk in women. DESIGN AND SETTING: Nurses' Health Study, a prospective cohort study during 1984-2000. Dietary data were collected in 1984, 1986, 1990, and 1994 using a validated semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. SUBJECTS: A total of 72 874 female nurses, aged 38-65 y, without previously diagnosed angina, myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, or cancer at baseline. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence of nonfatal MI, CHD deaths, total CHD events, ischemic, and total strokes. RESULTS: There were 1679 CHD events (1201 nonfatal) and 1009 strokes (567 ischemic). After adjustment for age and lifestyle factors associated with cardiovascular disease risk, the multivariate relative risks (RR) (95% CI) of total CHD from the lowest to the highest quintile category of phylloquinone intake were 1 (reference), 0.80 (0.69-0.94), 0.86 (0.74-1.00), 0.77 (0.66-0.99), and 0.79 (0.68-0.92), P for trend=0.01. Further adjustment for dietary intakes of saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, trans fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids, cereal fiber, and folate attenuated the association (RR comparing extreme quintiles 0.84 [0.71-1.00], P for trend=0.12). Incidence rates of total or ischemic strokes were not associated with phylloquinone intake. CONCLUSION: The data suggest that high phylloquinone intake may be a marker for low CHD risk. Dietary and lifestyle patterns associated with phylloquinone intakes, rather than intake of the nutrient itself, might account for all or part of the weak association. .

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Nutrient intakes of middle-aged men and women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the late 1990s: the INTERMAP study.

The purpose of the study was to compare nutrient intakes among Chinese, Japanese, UK, and US INTERMAP samples, and assess possible relationships of dietary patterns to differential patterns of cardiovascular diseases between East Asian and Western countries. Based on a common Protocol and Manuals of Operations, high-quality dietary data were collected by four standardized 24-h dietary recalls and two 24-h urine collections from 17 population samples in China (three samples), Japan (four samples), UK (two samples), and USA (eight samples). There were about 260 men and women aged 40-59 years per sample--total N=4680. Quality of dietary interview and data entry were monitored and enhanced by extensive systematic ongoing quality control procedures at local, country, and international level. Four databases on nutrient composition of foods from the four countries were updated and enhanced (76 nutrients for all four countries) by the Nutrition Coordinating Center, University of Minnesota, in cooperation with Country Nutritionists. The mean body mass index was much higher for Western than East Asian samples. Macronutrient intakes differed markedly across these samples, with Western diet higher in total fat, saturated and trans fatty acids, and Keys dietary lipid score, lower in total carbohydrate and starch, higher in sugars. Based on extensive published data, it is a reasonable inference that this pattern relates to higher average levels of serum total cholesterol and higher mortality from coronary heart disease in Western than East Asian populations. The rural Chinese diet was lower in protein, especially animal protein, in calcium, phosphorus, selenium, and vitamin A. Dietary sodium was higher, potassium lower, hence Na/K ratio was higher in the Asian diet, especially for Chinese samples. This pattern is known to relate to risks of adverse blood pressure level and stroke. At the end of the 20th century, East Asian and Western diets remain significantly different in macro- and micronutrient composition. Both dietary patterns have aspects that can be regarded, respectively, as adverse and protective in relation to the major adult cardiovascular diseases. In both Asian and Western countries, public efforts should be targeted at overcoming adverse aspects and maintaining protective patterns for prevention and control of cardiovascular diseases.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Atherogenic and anti-atherogenic factors in the human diet.

New atherosclerosis causative factors and preventive modalities have been identified. Atherogenic factors include lipid oxidation products, such as cholesterol oxidation products, malonaldehyde and other aldehydes; trans-fatty acids; some saturated fatty acids (lauric, myristic and possibly palmitic acids); and myristic acid plus cholesterol. Lipid oxidation products are well suited to induce arterial damage, based on their known cytotoxic effects; evidence also indicates the possibility of plaque promotion and stimulation of thrombogenesis. Anti-atherogenic factors include antioxidants, fish oils and other polyunsaturates (if protected from oxidation), fibre and trace minerals such as copper, manganese, selenium and zinc. Iron is unique, being considered as both a potential promoter of atherosclerosis (component of ferritin, conceivably inducing lipid oxidation) and a possible anti-atherogenic component (of antioxidant enzyme catalase). It is apparent that an entire new series of research challenges has been uncovered.

Antioxidants↗
PubMed1992

Replacement of dietary fat with palm oil: effect on human serum lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins.

Thirty-eight male volunteers participated in a double-blind cross-over trial evaluating the effect of replacing the usual sources of saturated fat in the Dutch diet (animal fats and hydrogenated oils) by palm oil, which is virtually free of cholesterol and trans-fatty acids, on serum lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins. Maximum (about 70%) replacement had no significant effect on serum total cholesterol or most lipoprotein fractions, but resulted in an 11% increase in serum high-density-lipoprotein (HDL)2-cholesterol relative to the control (P2 = 0.01). The palm-oil diet also caused an 8% decrease in low-density-lipoprotein (LDL):HDL2 + HDL3-cholesterol ratio (P2 = 0.02) as well as a 9% decrease in triacylglycerols in the low-density-lipoprotein fractions (P2 = 0.01). Palm oil consumption resulted in a 4% increase in serum apolipoprotein AI (P2 = 0.008) and a 4% decrease in apolipoprotein B (P2 = 0.01) relative to the control diet; the B:AI apolipoprotein ratio was decreased by 8% (P2 < 0.0001). These results were not significantly affected by the different lipoprotein E phenotypes of the volunteers. Although the observed differences were relatively modest, the present study, nonetheless, indicates that dietary palm oil, when replacing a major part of the normal fat content in a Dutch diet, may slightly reduce the lipoprotein- and apolipoprotein-associated cardiovascular risk profiles.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Dietary lipids and vascular function: UK Food Standards Agency workshop report.

The UK Food Standards Agency convened a group of expert scientists to review current research investigating the effect of dietary lipids on vascular function. The workshop highlighted the need for intervention studies to be sufficiently powered for these measures and that they should be corroborated with other, more validated, risk factors for CVD. Work presented at the workshop suggested a beneficial effect of long-chain n-3 PUFA and a detrimental effect of trans fatty acids. The workshop also considered the importance of the choice of study population in dietary intervention studies and that "at risk" subgroups within the general population may be more appropriate than subjects that are unrepresentatively healthy.

Cardiovascular Diseases↗
PubMed2004

Diet composition and the risk of type 2 diabetes: epidemiological and clinical evidence.

In the last 10 years nutritional research on diabetes has improved dramatically in terms of both number of studies produced and quality of methodologies employed. Therefore, it is now possible to attempt to provide the evidence on which nutritional recommendations for the prevention of type 2 diabetes could be based. We therefore performed a literature search and, among the papers published in indexed journals, we selected relevant epidemiological (mostly prospective) and controlled intervention studies. Lifestyle factors that have, so far, been consistently associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes are overweight and physical inactivity. However, recent evidence from epidemiological studies has shown that the risk of type 2 diabetes is also associated with diet composition, particularly with: (1) low fibre intake; (2) a high trans fatty acid intake and a low unsaturated:saturated fat intake ratio; (3) absence of or excess alcohol consumption. All these factors are extremely common in Western populations and therefore the potential impact of any intervention on them is large: indeed, >90 % of the general population has one or more of these risk factors. The ability to correct these behaviours in the population is estimated to reduce the incidence of diabetes by as much as 87 %. Recent intervention studies have shown that type 2 diabetes can be prevented by lifestyle changes aimed at body-weight reduction, increased physical activity and multiple changes in the composition of the diet. Within this context, the average amount of weight loss needed is not large, about 5 % initial weight, which is much less than the weight loss traditionally considered to be clinically significant for prevention of type 2 diabetes. In conclusion, new emphasis on prevention by multiple lifestyle modifications, including moderate changes in the composition of the habitual diet, might limit the dramatic increase in incidence of type 2 diabetes envisaged worldwide.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2004

Long-term almond supplementation without advice on food replacement induces favourable nutrient modifications to the habitual diets of free-living individuals.

Epidemiological and metabolic studies have shown that regular nut consumption may protect against risk of heart disease and diabetes. None has investigated the effect of adding nuts to a self-selected habitual diet (containing little or no nuts) on dietary patterns. The present study evaluated the impact of long-term almond supplementation in healthy men (n 43) and women (n 38) aged 25-70 years on nutrient profile and nutrient displacement. All subjects were followed for 1 year. During the first 6 months, subjects followed their habitual diets; in the second 6 months, subjects added almonds to their diets. Diets were assessed by seven random 24 h telephone diet recalls during each diet period. On average, the almond supplement was 52 g/d (about forty-two nuts) containing 1286 kJ. When subjects changed from their habitual diet to the almond-supplemented diet, the intakes of MUFA, PUFA, fibre, vegetable protein, alpha-tocopherol, Cu and Mg significantly (P<0.05) increased by 42, 24, 12, 19, 66, 15 and 23% respectively; the intakes of trans fatty acids, animal protein, Na, cholesterol and sugars significantly (P<0.05) decreased by 14, 9, 21, 17 and 13% respectively. These spontaneous nutrient changes closely match the dietary recommendations to prevent cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. Displacement estimates for total energy, total protein, total fat, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, total fibre, Ca, Fe, Mg, P, K, Zn and alpha-tocopherol ranged from 16 to 98%; the estimates for total food weight, carbohydrate, sugars and Se were >245%. A daily supplement of almonds can induce favourable nutrient modifications for chronic disease prevention to an individual's habitual diet.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The ancestral human diet: what was it and should it be a paradigm for contemporary nutrition?

Awareness of the ancestral human diet might advance traditional nutrition science. The human genome has hardly changed since the emergence of behaviourally-modern humans in East Africa 100-50 x 10(3) years ago; genetically, man remains adapted for the foods consumed then. The best available estimates suggest that those ancestors obtained about 35% of their dietary energy from fats, 35% from carbohydrates and 30% from protein. Saturated fats contributed approximately 7.5% total energy and harmful trans-fatty acids contributed negligible amounts. Polyunsaturated fat intake was high, with n-6:n-3 approaching 2:1 (v. 10:1 today). Cholesterol consumption was substantial, perhaps 480 mg/d. Carbohydrate came from uncultivated fruits and vegetables, approximately 50% energy intake as compared with the present level of 16% energy intake for Americans. High fruit and vegetable intake and minimal grain and dairy consumption made ancestral diets base-yielding, unlike today's acid-producing pattern. Honey comprised 2-3% energy intake as compared with the 15% added sugars contribute currently. Fibre consumption was high, perhaps 100 g/d, but phytate content was minimal. Vitamin, mineral and (probably) phytochemical intake was typically 1.5 to eight times that of today except for that of Na, generally <1000 mg/d, i.e. much less than that of K. The field of nutrition science suffers from the absence of a unifying hypothesis on which to build a dietary strategy for prevention; there is no Kuhnian paradigm, which some researchers believe to be a prerequisite for progress in any scientific discipline. An understanding of human evolutionary experience and its relevance to contemporary nutritional requirements may address this critical deficiency.

Acid-Base Equilibrium↗
PubMed2004

Evaluation of diet quality with the mediterranean dietary quality index in university students.

Data on diet quality in Croatian university students have been missing for more than 15?years. A food approach rather than a nutrient approach appears more appropriate to present knowledge on diet and health. The aim of the present study was to evaluate diet quality in Croatian university students (n = 663) with the Mediterranean Dietary Quality Index (M-DQI) in continental and Mediterranean regions. The M-DQI was determined with a Quantified Food Frequency Questionnaire. The minimum score for the M-DQI is 0 and the maximum score is 14. A higher score indicates a less healthy diet. The score for the M-DQI was the same in both regions (9.6) and did not differ significantly. In the category for scores 8-14 were 84.0% and 84.6% of students in the continental and Mediterranean regions, respectively. Higher correlation for the M-DQI was observed with macronutrient intakes than with micronutrient intakes. The M-DQI did not correlate with trans-fatty acid intake. A significant correlation (negative) with lycopene was observed in the Mediterranean region only. The body mass index did not correlate with the M-DQI. Students from both regions, continental and Mediterranean, had a lower diet quality evaluated with the M-DQI, with no significant difference according to region.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

A review of factors affecting fat absorption in hot chips.

Consumption of hot chips is a convenience food in most countries. Unfortunately, these are high in fat and contribute to fat-related diseases in societies with a high fat consumption. There is substantial scope through best-practice deep-frying techniques for producing lower fat, high-quality chips. From a review of the literature, the main factors associated with a lower-fat content of chips are thick (>12 mm), straight cut chips; cryogenic freezing methods; low moisture content of potatoes (specific gravity >1.1); frying fat: chip volume ratio of 6:1; frying at optimal temperature (180 to 185 degrees C) during cooking and turning the temperature down (approximately 140 degrees C) and covering the vats during slack periods; vigorously shaking the basket and hanging it over the deep fryer to drain after frying; maintaining the quality of the frying fat by regularly skimming the cracklings, filtering the fat, and topping up the fryer with fresh fat; keeping the fat turnover <5 days; regular cleaning of frying equipment. It is important that all deep frying operators are adequately trained in these techniques. It is also important that the frying medium is low in saturated and trans fatty acids (<20%) because of their effects on blood lipids and low in linolenic acid (<3%) because it is readily degraded. The widespread implementation of best-practice deep-frying would reduce fat content of hot chips and thus lower overall fat consumption.

Absorption↗