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PubMed1975

A survey of air and population lead levels in selected American communities.

The concentration of lead in the ambient atmosphere was determined at 59 sampling sites in eight American communities during the period 1968-71. Nineteen sampling sites had existed in a similar survey in 1961-62. At 14 of these sites the lead-in-air value was found to be higher in the current study than in 1961-62. The observed annual mean atmospheric concentration of lead varied from 0.14 mug/m3 (Los Alamos) to 4.55 mug/m3 (Downtown Los Angeles). Higher lead values were associated with urbanization. The concentration of lead in the blood of specific well-defined populations was determined. Such populations lived in geographic proximity to specific air sampling sites. In the three metropolitan areas from which both urban and suburban population groups had been obtained, the mean blood lead levels were significantly higher in the former. In two of the three areas the blood lead level was higher in urban smokers and non-smokers than in the corresponding suburban populations, classified by smoking habits. At each location the concentration of lead in the blood of smokers was greater than that in the blood of non-smokers. The magnitude of the observed urban-suburban difference (for populations comparable in smoking habits) ranged from 0.9 mug/100 gms to 4.5 mug/100 gms. It is probable that these observations partially reflect lead absorption from ambient atmospheres differing in lead concentration. There was no significant concordance between the ranking by site of mean air lead levels and that of the mean blood lead levels prevalent in the related populations. The observation that urban levels of blood lead and higher than suburban levels, but that air concentrations of lead are not clearly reflected in blood lead levels on a general national basis, suggests that factors other than the atmospheric lead level are of relatively greater importance in determining the blood lead levels in population groups. No relationship was established between age of participant and the blood lead level. In husband-wife pairs, presumably exposed to similar diets and atmospheres, the males had significantly higher blood lead levels than did the females. This difference could not be attributed to smoking habits or to hematocrit levels. The possibility that the difference was due to dissimilar quantities of foods in the respective diets of men and women was not examined. Studies of dietary lead levels showed them to be generally lower than commonly reported in the literature, 100 mug/day being a closer approximation in the population studies than the widely quoted 300 mug/day.

Air↗
PubMed2005

[Oral health knowledge, attitude and behavior in adults of Deyang city, PR China].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the oral health knowledge, attitudes and behavior of urban, rural and suburban adults in Deyang, PR China, and analyze the influence of several variables on the utilization of dental services. METHODS: 1010 adults with 35-44 years old from urban, rural and suburban areas were interviewed by Questionnaire for Adults, WHO Integrated Package for Basic Oral Care. RESULTS: More than half of the surveyed adults claimed "having pain of mouth during the last 1 year". More urban adults (61.3%) used fluoridate toothpaste than suburban and rural adults (6.9%, 16.8%). 61.0% and 71.5% of rural and suburban adults had never seen a dentist, compared with 32.0% of urban adults. Logistic regression analysis showed that urban adults having pain in mouth during the last year were more likely to visit a dentist in the last 2 years. CONCLUSION: Although the oral health attitude is good among the people in Deyang, the knowledge is poor. Dental service utilization was not enough and the situation was also worse for rural adults.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[Size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different function zones of Guangzhou in autumn, China].

Size distribution of aerosol samples collected from two urban locations (Liwan and Wushan) and a suburban location (Xinken) in Guangzhou (South China) in autumn using Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor (MOUDI) were analyzed for 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by gas chromatography with mass selective detection (GC-MS). Bimodal distribution was found for 3- and 4-ring PAHs and unimodal for 5-, 6- and 7-ring PAHs. Different PAH size distribution models were found for urban and suburban. PAHs associated with larger particles in suburban than in urban, and different aging processes of aerosols can account for it. Adsorption behavior may be the main mechanism controlled the size distribution of PAHs in urban, and adsorption, absorption and multilayer adsorption may all play a part in suburban. For the diagnostic ratios of PAHs with the same molecular weight, large differences were found between the range of 1-2.5 microm and 0.1-0.56 microm. The concentrations of 13 PAHs were 39 ng/m3 in Xinken, 71-94 ng/m3 in Wushan and 32-154 ng/m3 in Liwan, and 5-7 ring PAHs were the most abundant.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1993

[Study of total lead exposure on a hazard to the health of children].

This study of total lead exposure on 128 children from four kindergartens in Beijing and 194 children from two townships in the suburb of Beijing, all aged between 5 and 6.5 years, showed that the urban children had higher blood lead levels (0.375 mumol/L, 7.77 micrograms/dl) than their teachers' (0.223 mumol/L, 4.63 micrograms/dl) by 67.4%. While suburban children had higher blood lead levels (0.594 mumol/L, 12.3 micrograms/dl) than their mothers' (0.299 mumol/L, 6.19 micrograms/dl) by 98.7%. There was approximately 72.5%-74.7% of suburban children whose blood lead levels were well over 0.483 mumol/L (10 micrograms/dl) and 23%-25% were above 0.724 mumol/L (15 micrograms/dl). Suburban children had higher FEP levels and an abnormal rate of FEP than urban children. The lead levels taken in through diet by suburban children were higher (43.7-85.9 micrograms/day per child) than urban children (29.3 micrograms/day per child). As the main source of lead came from foodstuff and air, 90%-98% of lead was taken in with food, of which 89% came from intake of cereals and vegetables. There was a significant correlation between the blood lead levels, the practical intelligence quotient (IQ), and the visomotor integration based upon the survey of the two groups of children. The results showed that the lead exposure poses a significant hazard to the health of children in Beijing.

Child↗
PubMed1990

Patterns of change in the intermetropolitan location of population, jobs, and housing: 1950 to 1980.

"This paper presents a discussion and estimates of a simultaneous-equations model of intrametropolitan location of population, employment, and housing. What distinguishes this work from prior research on suburbanization is that population is distinguished by income class, employment is distinguished by type, and housing is distinguished by mode (i.e., owner versus rental). The model is estimated for three distinct decades, namely, the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Moreover, rather than inferring the causal linkages between population, employment, and housing from estimates of urban density functions or from relative changes in central city and suburban population, this paper utilizes [U.S.] data on actual movers between central cities (suburbs) and suburbs (central cities), as well as on the location of metropolitan in-migrants in the central city versus the suburban ring."

Americas↗
PubMed1997

Polycentrism, commuting, and residential location in the San Francisco Bay area.

"The San Francisco Bay Area has taken on a distinct polycentric metropolitan form, with three tiers of hierarchical employment centers encircling downtown San Francisco.... In this paper it is found that polycentric development is associated with differentials in suburban and urban commute trip times: commute trips made by employees of suburban centers are shorter in duration than commute trips made by their counterparts in larger and denser urban centers. Differentials were even greater, however, with respect to commuting modal splits. Lower density, outlying employment centers averaged far higher rates of drive-alone automobile commuting and insignificant levels of transit commuting....The effects of housing availability and prices on the residential locational choices of those working both in urban and in suburban employment centers are also investigated...."

Americas↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Growth of children living in the outskirts of Ankara: impact of low socio-economic status.

BACKGROUND: Most studies of the growth of Turkish schoolchildren are limited to large cities and to subjects from high socio-economic background. Very little is known about growth and development of rural, suburban and low socio-economic children in Turkey. AIM: The purpose of this study is to compare height and weight of school-aged children of low socio-economic background with available growth data from high socio-economic strata, and to verify the possible influences of three socio-demographic parameters on their growth. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The sample consisted of 1,052 girls and 1,223 boys, aged between 7-17 years, living in the outskirts of Ankara, a suburban area of poor socio-economic background. Centile distributions for height and weight were estimated by the LMS-method. ANOVA and Student's t-test were used to compare mean z-scores for height and weight among the various categories of the socio-demographic parameters. RESULTS: Children living in the outskirts of Ankara have lower mean values for height and weight when compared with growth data of upper socio-economic strata children. The differences were most pronounced during adolescence. Skinfolds were higher in girls than in boys at all ages (largest p = 0.007). There was no clear relationship between growth and the number of siblings, the number of rooms in the house, the mother's and father's education, and the father's professional status (p > 0.05), except for the height of girls (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: It is suggested that the lower growth status of children living in the outskirts of Ankara is attributable to the poor socio-economic status of this suburban population, which has not changed over the past decades. It is postulated that the growth impairment during adolescence might be due to a reduced tempo of growth in these children.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The effects of air pollution on the respiratory health of children: a cross-sectional study.

To investigate the effects of air pollution on the respiratory health of children, a subject of some controversy, a comparative study was undertaken of 2,385 school children who lived in central urban, peripheral urban, and suburban areas. Daily monitoring of sulphur dioxide and total suspended particle concentrations in all areas showed that pollutant concentrations in central and peripheral urban areas were above commonly accepted safety levels for respiratory health, while concentrations in the suburban area were within acceptable limits. A questionnaire administered to each mother assessed environmental exposure to pollutants in the household, the occurrence of respiratory symptoms as well as lung diseases as diagnosed by a physician, and general information. Children were interviewed about smoking habits and any acute respiratory symptoms. Children also performed standard lung function tests. Results showed that children from both urban areas had lessened pulmonary function and a higher prevalence of bronchial secretion with common colds than did those from the suburban area. These differences persisted after corrections for exposure to indoor pollutants, active or passive smoking, socioeconomic status, and sex. Parental cigarette smoking was related to a fall in forced expiratory volume in 1 second and an increased incidence of acute respiratory illnesses and chronic cough in children. Although boys had higher lung volumes and lower air flow, regression analysis showed no significant influence of the interactions "sex-geographic area" and "sex-smoking" on lung function. It was concluded that air pollution has a significant effect on the respiratory health of children.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Neighborhood influences and intimate partner violence: does geographic setting matter?

Intimate partner violence is one health-related outcome that has received growing attention from those interested in the role of neighborhood context. A limitation of existing contextual health research is its' failure to look beyond urban settings. Because suburban and rural areas have received so little attention, it is not clear whether data generated from urban samples can be generalized to non-urban geographic settings. We began to explore this issue using concept mapping, a participatory, mixed method approach. Data from 37 urban and 24 suburban women are used to explore and compare perceptions of neighborhood characteristics related to intimate partner violence. While several similarities exist between the perceptions of participants residing in urban and suburban areas, some differences were uncovered. These results provide valuable information regarding the perceived relationship between neighborhood context and intimate partner violence and suggest future avenues for research interested in examining the role of geographic setting.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Blood lead and associated risk factors in Ontario children.

The purpose of this study was to determine blood levels in Ontario children and to identify those risk factors associated with higher blood lead levels. A random sample of 1315 children aged 7 and younger from urban, suburban and rural Ontario was selected. Blood lead concentration was determined in finger prick blood samples by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Measurements of lead in air, tap water, soil, and gasoline were also established. Traffic pattern were determined in each area. A questionnaire was administered to a random sample of 800 families of the children tested to assess the presence of other risk factors. Urban children had higher geometric mean blood lead levels (12.02, S.D. = 4.4 micrograms/dl) than suburban children (9.95, S.D. = 3.5 micrograms/dl), and they, in turn, had higher blood lead levels than rural children (8.91, S.D. = 3.9 micrograms/dl). Each of these differences is statistically significant (p less than 0.001). Fifty four (4.3%) of all children were at or above the alert level of 20 micrograms/dl. The proportion above the alert level did not differ significantly between urban, suburban and rural children. Blood lead levels were slightly higher for males than females and for pre-schoolers aged 3 and 4, compared to school age children aged 5 and 6. The blood lead levels of these children were significantly lower than that of children surveyed near a point source of industrial emissions. Multivariate statistical modelling resulted in a set of characteristics which best explained the differences in children's blood lead levels.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Impact of meteorology and energy structure on solvent extractable organic compounds of PM2.5 in Beijing, China.

Twenty-eight PM2.5 samples collected in Summer (July 2002) and Winter (November 2002) at two sites in Beijing, China were analyzed using GC/MS to investigate the impact of meteorology and coal burning on the solvent extractable organic compounds (SEOC). The characteristics and abundance of the n-alkanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), n-fatty acids and n-alkanols were determined. Source identification was made using organic species as molecular markers. Semi-volatile compounds of alkanes and PAHs had much higher concentrations in winter than summer because of the large difference in the temperature between the seasons. Plant wax emission was a major contributor to n-alkanes in summer, but fossil fuel residue was a major source (>80%) in winter. The seasonal differences in the distribution of pentacyclic triterpanes clearly shows the impact of coal burning for space heating in winter. The yield of PAHs in winter (148 ng m(-3) at the urban site and 277 ng m(-3) at the suburban site) was six to eight times higher than that in summer and was found to be mainly from coal burning. Higher pollutant concentrations were measured at the suburban site than the urban site in winter due to the rapid expansion of the city limit and the relocation of factories from urban to suburban areas over the last two decades.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2002

Telemedicine and neurosciences in developing countries.

It is a universally accepted fact that the number of neurosurgeons in developing countries is woefully inadequate. It is also unrealistic to expect this limited number to work in professional isolation, in suburban and rural areas, without adequate infrastructure. Therefore, this has resulted in concentration of neurosurgeons in developing countries, in metropolitan areas, even at the risk of being underemployed. The phenomenal advances in communications and information technology in India are resulting in a new look at how secondary and tertiary health care can be provided to the underprivileged masses. Following a proof of concept validation ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) in conjunction with the Apollo Hospitals, is ready to use satellite technology to provide specialist care not only to suburban and rural India but to other countries as well, by using the large number of highly qualified and trained specialists in urban India. The implications of these developments for the delivery of neurosurgical care to suburban and rural India is briefly reviewed.

Developing Countries↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The contribution of traffic to indoor concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

A photoelectric aerosol sensor (PAS) was used to measure real-time indoor concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at three residences. Semi-quantitative measurements of total indoor particle-bound PAH and temperature were collected continuously every minute for approximately 2 weeks at each location. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of traffic on indoor concentrations of PAHs. This was accomplished by collecting indoor measurements at an urban, semi-urban, and suburban residential location with varying levels of, and proximity to, traffic. Since the homes were occupied, the effects of cooking, the dominant indoor source, were also examined among the three nonsmoking households. The results indicate that traffic was the main outdoor source of PAH concentrations measured indoors for all locations. In fact, a significant (p<0.001) traffic-related trend in weekday PAH concentration was detected with a geometric mean concentration at the urban location (31 ng/m3) nearly two times that at the semi-urban location (19 ng/m3) and over three times larger than the suburban location (8.0 ng/m3), once adjusted for indoor sources. Hourly average concentration profiles also revealed weekday rush hour peaks of PAHs at all locations. No pronounced peaks and significantly lower concentrations (10, 10, and 4.9 ng/m3) were seen during the weekends for all locations i.e., the urban, semi-urban and suburban locations, respectively. Indoor sources including frying/sautéing, broiling, and candle-burning were characterized by peak concentration, duration of PAH elevation, and potential dose. This analysis suggests that cooking, and especially frying/sautéing, may be an important source of indoor PAH concentrations.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Air pollution and respiratory health among children with asthmatic or cough symptoms.

During the winter of 1994, the association between daily changes in air pollution and in the respiratory health of children 7 to 12 yr of age were studied in Kuopio, Finland. Seventy-four children with asthmatic symptoms and 95 children with cough only, living either in urban or suburban areas, were followed for 3 mo. During the study period, the mean daily concentration of particulate air pollution (PM10) was 18 micrograms/m3 in the urban area and 13 micrograms/m3 in the suburban area. Lagged concentrations of PM10, black smoke, and NO2 were significantly associated with declines in morning peak expiratory flow (PEF) among asthmatic children. The regression coefficient (x10) for a 2-d lag of PM10 was -0.911 (SE, 0.386) in the urban and -1.05 (0.596), in the suburban area. Among children with cough only, PM10, black smoke, and NO2 were not significantly associated with PEF. In the urban area, there was a significant association between SO2 and morning and evening PEF and incidence of upper respiratory symptoms among children who cough only. No other associations between air pollution and evening PEF or respiratory symptoms were observed. This study suggests that particulate air pollution is associated with respiratory health, especially among children with asthmatic symptoms.

Air Pollution↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Changing physician practice behavior to measure and improve clinical outcomes.

Physician practice behavior often produces poor clinical outcomes in the management of cardiovascular disease risk factors in spite of effective treatments and guidelines. The behavior of 165 physicians in 2 settings (suburban and urban) was studied. After collecting baseline clinical data, including systolic blood pressure and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, a series of interventions was conducted, including academic detailing. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased 10.4% in suburban patients with cardiovascular disease in the intervention group (P = .001) and 10.5% in the enhanced intervention group (P = .001). Systolic blood pressure decreased 1.11% (P = .357) in the intervention group and 5.13% in the enhanced intervention group (P < .001). In urban hypertensive patients, systolic blood pressure decreased 5.03% (P = .001) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased 7.01% (P < .001). Combining urban and suburban data, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased 9.32% (P < .001) and systolic blood pressure decreased 4.00% (P < .001). Providing physicians with their clinical outcomes, reviewing national guidelines, and setting expectations, associated with modest practice systems innovations, can produce significant measurable clinical improvements.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Convergent habitat segregation of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in southeastern Brazil and Florida.

During the rainy season of 2001, the incidence of the dengue vectors Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus was examined in different habitats of two cities (Rio de Janeiro and Nova Iguaçu) in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, and in two cities (Palm Beach and Boca Raton) in Florida. Oviposition trap collections were performed in urban, suburban, and rural habitats in both areas. Our hypothesis that the abundances and frequencies of occurrence of Ae. aegypti and Ae albopictus are affected in opposite ways by increasing urbanization was only partially supported. City, habitat, and their interaction significantly affected the abundance of both species. Cities with high abundance of Ae. aegypti also had a high abundance of Ae. albopictus. The two species were most abundant in the cities of Rio de Janeiro state and the lowest in Boca Raton. Habitat had a significant but opposite effect on the abundances of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. In general, Ae. aegypti was most prevalent in highly urbanized areas and Ae. albopictus in rural, suburban, and vegetated urban areas in Rio de Janeiro state and Florida. However, abundances of the two species were similar in most suburban areas. Analyses of frequencies of occurrence showed an unexpected high level of co-occurrence of both species in the same oviposition trap. Despite the different geographical origins of Ae. albopictus in Brazil and the United States, the habitats used by this recent invader are remarkably similar in the two countries.

Aedes↗
PubMed2003

Socio-demographic factors of pupils who use tobacco in randomly-selected primary schools in Nairobi province, Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence and socio-economic correlates of tobacco use among primary school pupils in Nairobi, Kenya. DESIGN: Cross-sectional school-based survey. SETTING: Ten primary schools in Nairobi, Kenya. SUBJECTS: A questionnaire was administered to 1198 primary school pupils aged 12 to 17 years and 1130 (response rate 94.3%) students responded under supervision in the classroom. RESULTS: A total of 31% (95% CI 27.5-34.5) had experimented with smoking, 9% (95% CI 7.1-11.5) with smokeless tobacco and 55% (95% CI 50.7-59.6) reported having friends who smoked. The rates of lifetime smoking were statistically significantly higher in urban than in suburban students (33% versus 25%, p<0.05), whereas a higher proportion of suburban residents reported lifetime use of smokeless tobacco (8 % versus 12 %, p<0.05). Among urban as well as suburban students, 15 years and above were significantly more likely than their counterparts aged 14 years and below to report lifetime smoking, lifetime use of smokeless tobacco, fathers' use of tobacco, and friend's tobacco use. The adjusted odds ratios, OR, and 95% confidence intervals, 95% CI, for students ever smoking were 2.2 (95% CI 1.3-1.8), 2.4 (95 % CI 1.6-3.7), 1.8 (95 % CI 1.1-3.2 and 2.6 (95 % CI 1.7-4.1) for place of residence, gender, age and friend's use of tobacco. CONCLUSION: Generally, the proportions of primary pupils using different forms of tobacco were low in Nairobi province, although the proportion of pupils who had smoked at least once in their lifetime amounted to 31%. Since primary school pupils live in an environment that makes them susceptible to smoking, preventive programmes should be introduced to avoid the development of nicotine addiction and regular smoking.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

The role of location in medical technologist job satisfaction.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a difference in job satisfaction existed between medical technologists working in an urban hospital and those working in a suburban hospital. The four areas of investigation were (1) satisfaction with pay, (2) professional status, (3) medical technologist-physician relationship, and (4) job task requirements. Sixty medical technologists, from two different hospital locations, were surveyed using a work satisfaction questionnaire. A response rate of 60 percent from the suburban and 58 percent from the urban hospital was achieved. Analysis using the Mann-Whitney U test indicated that urban laboratorians were more satisfied with all areas of interest than were their suburban counterparts. The surveyed medical technologists were most satisfied with professional status, medical technologist-physician relationship, pay, and job task requirements. All scores were, in general, low, suggesting a need to attend to improved job satisfaction among medical technologists.

Hospitals, Urban↗