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PubMed2006

The effect of long-term swimming program on body composition, aerobic capacity and blood lipids in 14-19-year aged healthy girls and girls with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of long-term swimming program on body composition, aerobic capacity, and blood lipid/cholesterol level. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Nineteen girls aged 14-19 years with duration of diabetes of 8.1+/-0.9 years and 28 healthy girls aged 14-19 years participated in the study. Before and after 14-week swimming program, weight, height, and four skinfold thickness were measured, body mass index (kg/m(2)) and body fat mass (%) were calculated, blood lipid levels (total cholesterol, high-density/low-density lipoprotein, and triglyceride) were estimated. Aerobic capacity was assessed by Ruffie test. Training sessions (each lasted for 45 min) were held twice per week for 14 weeks. A total of 28 trainings were performed in the swimming pool. Workload intensity was corrected by pulse measurement before and after every session in the water. RESULTS: After 14-week swimming program, body mass index did not change, but body fat mass decreased significantly in healthy (27.2+/-1.0 vs. 25.5+/-0.8%, p<0.001) and diabetics (34.8+/-1.2 vs. 32.1+/-1.2%, p<0.001) subjects. Both groups improved their aerobic capacity (p<0.01 in healthy and p<0.05 in diabetics). No significant changes in blood lipid profile were found in all subjects, only high-density lipoprotein concentration significantly increased in healthy girls (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Long-term swimming program improved aerobic capacity, reduced body fat mass in all participants, and reduced high-density lipoprotein levels only in healthy subjects.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2006

Indoor heated swimming pools: the vulnerability of some infants to develop spinal asymmetries years later.

Evidence reported in an earlier paper suggests that infants introduced to indoor heated swimming pools in the first year of life show an association with spinal asymmetries including progressive adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) and in normal subjects vertical spinous process asymmetry. Indoor heated swimming pools may contain a risk factor that predisposes some infants to develop such spinal asymmetries years later. What the risk factor(s) may be and its possible portal of entry into the infant's body are unknown and possibilities are examined. New teenage controls were obtained after mothers of AIS patients mentioned that they had taken their child to an infant swim class. In a further group of 18 normal teenagers introduced to an indoor heated swimming pool in the first year of life, 15 had vertical spinous process asymmetry. This prevalence of 83% of those at risk confirms our previous observation of vertical spinous process asymmetry in 61% of teenagers who were introduced to indoor heated swimming pools in the first year of life. Subject to confirmation of our observations consideration should be given to chemical risk factors, possible portals of entry, toxicology, environmental epigenomics and disease susceptibility to altered spinal development. If the risk factor is confirmed there may ultimately be a place for the prevention of AIS in some subjects.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Fetal responses to maximal swimming and cycling exercise during pregnancy.

Fetal responses to maximal maternal exercise were studied during cycle ergometry and tethered swimming in 13 untrained subjects at 25 and 35 weeks' gestation. The fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine and umbilical artery waveforms were measured before exercise, immediately after exercise, and at 5-minute intervals during 20 minutes of recovery. The mean maternal maximal heart rate was 179 +/- 12 beats per minute and did not differ between swimming and cycling exercise trials. Six episodes of transient bradycardia occurred after a total of 45 maximal exercise trials. The mean FHR decreased slightly immediately after exercise, then increased approximately ten beats above baseline levels at 10-20 minutes after exercise (P less than .02). The changes from baseline in FHR were greater after cycling than after swimming. Changes observed in the systolic-diastolic ratio (S/D) of the umbilical artery could be accounted for by the FHR variations. The S/D of the uterine artery was significantly higher after cycling than after swimming (P = .05). We conclude that maximal maternal exercise during pregnancy causes transient fetal bradycardia in approximately 15% of cases, in cycling more often than in swimming.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Effect of swimming in thermal water on skeletal muscle, liver and heart glycogen.

Skeletal muscle, liver and heart glycogen variations, induced by swimming in thermal water (at 35 degrees C) as a model of physical exercise for clinical use, were studied. Muscle and liver glycogen moderately decreases after a 30-min period of swimming and comes near to depletion after 60 min. Heart glycogen decreases only slightly after 60 min. Blood glucose and plasma insulin decrease only after 60 min of swimming. A 30-min swim in thermal water, cooled to 25 degrees C, depletes muscle and liver glycogen and slightly decreases heart glycogen. Under these conditions, plasma insulin decreases and hypoglycemia occurs. The results seem to indicate some advantages of swimming in hot thermal water in order to prevent glycogen store depletion as the physiological prerequisite for a physical exercise of clinical interest to obtain therapeutical benefits, avoiding premature fatigue and exhaustion.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Effects of swimming exercise at two different water temperature on hepatic lipid and lipoprotein levels in experimental fatty liver rats.

The present study was aimed at demonstrating the effects of exercising in water at two different temperatures on lipid-lipoprotein metabolism in experimental fatty liver rats. The rats were fed a high fat, high cholesterol (CHL) diet for 6 weeks, then returned to standard chow. The fatty liver rats were then divided at random into three groups, two for swimming in 20 degrees C (20SWG) and 30 degrees C (30SWG) water, 5 days/week, 30 min/day for 6 weeks, and a sedentary control group (SG). The concentrations of serum triglyceride (TG) and CHL were significantly lower (p less than 0.01) in both the 20SWG and 30SWG than in the SG. The serum concentration of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)-CHL was clearly less in the 20SWG than in the SG (p less than 0.05) or the 30SWG (p less than 0.01). Compared to the SG, the two swimming groups had significantly lower levels (p less than 0.01) of low density lipoprotein (LDL)-CHL. The LDL-CHL in the 30SWG was significantly lower (p less than 0.01) than that in the 20SWG. There were no significant differences among the three groups in high density lipoprotein (HDL)/CHL. However, the ratio of HDL to CHL was over 10% greater in the two swimming groups than in the SG. Hepatic CHL ester and TG were significantly lower (p less than 0.05) in the 20SWG than in the SG. These results indicate that swimming in water at the lower temperature was more stimulating to lipid-lipoprotein metabolism in fatty liver than swimming in the higher temperature water.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Metabolic rate, heart rate, and tailbeat frequency during sustained swimming in the leopard shark Triakis semifasciata.

Heart rate, metabolic rate, and tailbeat frequency were simultaneously recorded from seven leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) during steady swimming at controlled speeds to evaluate the usefulness of heart rate as a measure of field metabolic rate. Heart rate was monitored by acoustic telemetry using a frequency modulated ECG transmitter. Metabolic rate was measured as oxygen consumption in a swimming tunnel respirometer. For instrumented sharks, mean resting oxygen consumption rate and heart rate were 105.3 +/- 35.6 (SE) mg O2.kg-1.h-1 and 36.6 +/- 1.8 (SE) beats.min-1, respectively. While swimming at the maximum sustained speed (0.84 +/- 0.03 lengths.s-1) for 30-60 min, these rates were 229.3 +/- 13.2 mg O2.kg-1.h-1 and 46.9 +/- 0.9 beats.min-1. Although a significant linear regression was obtained between metabolic rate and heart rate, a low overall correlation coefficient may result from the existence of separate individual regressions and confounding changes in stroke volume and/or arteriovenous oxygen difference. Heart rate was approximately as closely correlated with oxygen consumption rate as swimming speed was. A significant linear relationship was obtained between tailbeat frequency and swimming speed to speeds of 0.75 lengths.s-1.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Excitatory synaptic drive for swimming mediated by amino acid receptors in the lamprey.

In order to investigate the properties and pharmacology of the excitatory synaptic drive received by motoneurons during swimming in the lamprey, propriospinal excitatory interneurons were activated as a population by the regional application of N-methyl-D,L-aspartate (NMA) to either the 6-8 rostral-most or the 6-8 caudal-most segments of lengths of isolated spinal cord. This caused a rhythmic motor output to be generated in these regions. Synaptic potentials that were phase-locked to, and dependent on, the rhythmic motor activity of the segments exposed to the agonist could be recorded in motoneurons lying outside the activated regions. The synaptic drive to motoneurons located rostral or caudal to the activated regions was studied. Motoneurons received both descending and ascending synaptic input, which consisted of alternating excitatory and inhibitory phases. The inhibition could be reversed by chloride injection and blocked by strychnine, leaving an oscillating excitatory phase. The descending excitatory drive could extend 1-9 segments from the active region, while the ascending excitatory drive was recorded only in motoneurons that were 1-3 segments rostral to the active region. Both types of drive occurred in phase with the ipsilateral ventral root discharge: The peak depolarization of the descending drive occurred at the same point in the swimming cycle as that of the depolarizing phase seen during fictive swimming, while that of the ascending drive occurred significantly later. Both ascending and descending drives were partially reduced in amplitude by 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid or Mg2+. The blocking action of Mg2+ was, in both cases, voltage dependent. Cis-2,3-piperidine dicarboxylic acid or kynurenic acid caused a much greater reduction in the amplitude of the oscillations. These results suggest that a major part of the excitatory drive for swimming in lamprey motoneurons is generated by populations of propriospinal interneurons with relatively long descending and/or short ascending axons, which fire rhythmically during swimming and release an amino acid transmitter that excites motoneurons through N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and non-NMDA receptors. This information will allow these important neurons to be identified in future experiments.

Afferent Pathways↗
PubMed1988

Difference in escaping electric footshock by genetic mouse lines selectively bred for divergent levels of swim-induced analgesia.

Inbred mouse lines selectively bred for divergent levels of swim induced analgesia were differed in the ability to escape electric footshock. Mice displaying a high analgesia on a hot plate, after swimming for 3 min at 20 degrees centigrade terminated electric current applied at ascending intensity to the grid floor at a higher value compared to the low analgesia line. The difference was particularly pronounced after swim stress, when mice of the former line manifested a serious escape deficit by failing to terminate electric current elikiting apparently aversive phenomena, such as vocalization, runing and jumping. This escape deficit was reserved by naloxone, an opioid antagonist. Results are interpreted in terms of an assumed amnesic effect of endogenous peptides released under the conditions of swim stress. Such interpretation is justified by the data indicating a greater opioid involvement in the swim analgesia in the high analgesia line, compared to low analgesia mice, in which non-opioid mechanisms prevail.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1986

Endocrinologic, hematologic, and heart rate changes in swimming horses.

Two identical experiments, using Standardbred and Thoroughbred horses (experiment A, n = 31; experiment B, n = 17) on a swimming regimen, were performed 1 week apart to evaluate short-term heart rate, hematologic, and endocrinologic changes. Horses were placed in 4 categories based on duration of swimming (1 to 5, greater than 5 to 10, greater than 10 to 15, and greater than 15 minutes). Heart rate, PCV, and plasma concentrations of total protein, cortisol triiodothyronine, thyroxine, insulin, and glucose of each horse were evaluated before, immediately after, and 1 hour after swimming. For experiment A, there was a main effect of time of sampling on PCV, total protein, triiodothyronine, thyroxine, and insulin. There was a main effect of duration of swimming on insulin concentration and an interaction of duration of swimming and time of blood collection on heart rate and cortisol concentration. For experiment B, there was a main effect of time of blood collection on all the variables except glucose.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

The effect of swimming-stress on tail-flick latency of normal and hypophysectomized rats.

The effect of swimming-stress on pain threshold was investigated in normal and hypophysectomized male rats of Long-Evans strain. The Tail-Flick Latency (TFL) was taken for determining the algesic sensitivity to noxious heat stimulation of the tail. The present study has shown that swimming-stress could prolong the TFL to thermal tail stimulation. In 15 intact control rats, the TFL were prolonged from 2.47 +/- 0.07 (Mean +/- S.E.) to 3.81 +/- 0.21 sec. In 10 sham-operated and 10 hypophysectomized rats, the TFL were also prolonged from 3.10 +/- 0.25 to 4.37 +/- 0.35 and 3.59 +/- 0.09 to 4.50 +/- 0.13 sec respectively after a 3 min swim. Therefore, the hypophysectomy did not appear to modulate the analgesic effect induced by swimming-stress. These experimental data implied that the hypophysis may not be important in the analgesic effect induced by the swimming-stress.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

The effect of swimming in chlorinated water on middle ear pressure.

This study evaluated whether an important fall in middle ear pressure (MEP) was recordable several hours after swimming. MEPs were measured in 52 normal school children on an average of four occasions immediately before swimming and "control" exercise sessions, and were repeated four hours after the activity. Twenty-nine children swam in a high chlorine concentration, with a mean free chlorine level of 2.3 parts per million, and 23 children swam in a low chlorine environment, with a mean concentration of 0.4 parts per million. For the former there was an average decrease of 0.5 daPa after swimming and an increase of 34.7 daPa after exercise; for the latter there were increases of 13.3 and 15.6 daPa after swimming and exercise respectively. It is concluded that swimming does not adversely affect middle ear function. Exercise induces an increase in MEP, and exposure to high chlorine levels appears to cause a small reduction in middle ear pressure.

Child↗
PubMed1985

Afferent perturbations during "monopodal" swimming movements in the turtle: phase-dependent cutaneous modulation and proprioceptive resetting of the locomotor rhythm.

Locomotion consists of a repeating series of movement cycles (locomotor rhythm) with an orderly activation of musculature during each movement cycle (intracycle motor pattern). The effects of sensory stimulation, on both the intracycle motor pattern and the locomotor rhythm, were examined during electrically elicited swimming movements of a single turtle hindlimb. The resulting "monopodal" swimming was not subject to movement-related reflexes from other limbs or postural constraints, and provided a sensitive system for analyzing the effects of transient sensory perturbations. During "monopodal" swimming, cutaneous and extensor muscle-nerve stimulation (single 0.1- to 0.3-msec electrical pulse) had similar phase-dependent effects on the swim cycle in progress. Stimuli delivered during the powerstroke (limb retracting) shortened the period of the cycle. Stimulation during the returnstroke prolonged the cycle. Changes in cycle period were accompanied by in-phase adjustments of the EMG burst duration or interburst interval which was being expressed at the time of stimulus delivery. The in-phase adjustment of each muscle served to maintain the timing relationships between muscles, and resulted in the preservation of the intracycle motor pattern. Cutaneous and muscle-nerve stimulation had dramatically different effects on the locomotor rhythm. Cutaneous nerve stimulation produced period changes in poststimulus cycles which led to a temporary phase shift of the swimming rhythm. This temporary modulation suggests that cutaneous afferents do not have direct access to the timing circuitry of the central nervous system locomotor network. Muscle-nerve stimulation only altered the period of the cycle in progress at the time of stimulus delivery, and thus permanently reset the locomotor rhythm. This permanent phase shift suggests that muscle afferents have direct access to a central timing network which controls the locomotor rhythm.

Afferent Pathways↗
PubMed1984

[The effect of swimming on the nasal passages and on tube function in children].

In two studies the authors want to confirm experimentally what is assumed in every day ENT-practice: otitis and sinusitis are not infrequent complications of swimming. The first study, involving 60 children with chronic non-specific lung diseases shows that swimming in a sea water pool increases the nasal airway resistance during two days. In the second study, performed in 32 normal children swimming in a chlorous pool, a negative relationship is found between the number of days after the swimming and the increased nasal airway resistance. Probably other factors also play a part in this phenomenon. Due to the too small number of children showing an otitis media with effusion, the influence of swimming on the function of the Eustachian tube could not be determined.

Acoustic Impedance Tests↗
PubMed1982

Exercise-induced asthma after swimming and bicycle exercise.

Eleven adult patients with exercise-induced asthma (EIA) were subjected to swimming and bicycle exercise under controlled conditions regarding temperature and relative humidity of the inhaled air, the respiratory frequency, tidal volume, minute ventilation and the accumulated ventilation. Swimming for 6 min was performed on the first day, and the next day the patients performed bicycle exercise. On both days the temperature of the inhaled air was 23% C and the relative humidity 15%. The average accumulated ventilation for the 6 min of exercise was 404 l for bicycle exercise and 419 l for swimming. The decrease in pulmonary function was 31% after bicycle exercise and 30% after swimming. It is concluded that the stimuli for EIA are equally effective whether exercise is performed in the form of swimming or bicycling.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Swim-stress induced changes of rat adrenal catecholamine level depending on metabolic state and different ambient temperature.

The simultaneous influence of swim and thermal stress on catecholamine (CA) content in rat adrenal medulla was investigated histofluorimetrically in satiated and 24 h fasted rats. It was found that the increase of adrenal CA synthesis rate occurs in both fasted and satiated rats in state of hypothermia after the swimming at 20 degree C and in the hyperthermia caused by swimming at 47 degree. Similar release-induced increase of adrenal CA synthesis rate was observed after the swimming performed at 25 degree C only in fasted, but not in satiated rats. This increase was associated with the better physical condition and the less marked hypothermia in fasted animals compared to the satiated ones. The ambient temperature of 4 degree C causing the extreme hypothermia in both groups of animals failed to cause the CA synthesis acceleration, evoking the evident CA exhaustion in adrenals. The possibility of hypothermia-induced impairment of acetylcholinergic regulation of CA synthesis in adrenals--have been suggested. The different results concerning the body temperature, physical condition and the adrenal CA level obtained in fasted and satiated rats exposed to swim-stress at 25 degree C and 37 degree C have been discussed on the basis of the possible influence of metabolism rate on the adrenergic reaction to stress.

Adrenal Medulla↗
PubMed1980

Respiratory and heart rate responses to tethered controlled frequency breathing swimming.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the respiratory and heart rate (fH) responses to tethered controlled frequency breathing (CFB) swimming. Controlled frequency breathing swimming is an aquatic training technique in which ventilatory rate is voluntarily reduced in order to induce systemic hypoxia during training. Nine elite college swimmers experienced with CFB were studied. The tethered swimming tests were discontinuous, with 4 min work bouts interspersed with equal duration rest periods. The resisting forces during tethered swimming were 5.63, 6.82, and 7.95 kg. Each subject was tested breathing every two (control), three, four, and five arm strokes. Subjects performed all four breathing frequencies at a constant arm stroke rate of 30/min during freestyle swimming. As ventilatory volume decreased due to CFB, O2 extraction and estimated tidal volume significantly increased (P less than .05) to maintain a constant O2 consumption for a given workload. Carbon dioxide production, respiratory exchange ratio, and fH did not change significantly in response to CFB. Estimated alveolar partial pressure of O2 (PAO2) decreased and PACO2 increased significantly during CFB. However, estimated saturation of arterial blood with O2 (SAO2) was essentially undiminished during CFB. These responses do not indicate hypoxia, but rather hypercapnia during CFB.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Histomorphometry of long bone growth plate in swimming rats.

In exercises involving running, muscle power and gravitational forces act together to affect bone mass in accordance with Wolff's law. However, the direct effect of muscle activity on bones in non-weight-bearing activities, such as swimming, has not been explored. Previous data indicate that swimming exerts a positive effect on bone growth and development in young rats. We performed a histomorphometric study on the effect of swimming on the growth plate and subepiphyseal area of young adult rats. The experiments were carried out on 28 12-week-old albino Sabra rats. One group of 14 rats was trained to swim 1 hour/day, 5 days a week, for 12 weeks. Another group of 14 rats served as controls. The proximal femur and humerus of each animal were examined histomorphometrically. There was an increase in the subepiphyseal cancellous bone trabecullae of the femur. In the growth plate there was an increase in the number of column cells and proliferative cells. These changes were more pronounced in the femur than the humerus. We conclude that swimming induces an increase in subepiphyseal cancellous bone in young adult rats by enhancing growth plate activity.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Cold water swim stress- and delta-2 opioid-induced analgesia are modulated by spinal gamma-aminobutyric acidA receptors.

Cold water swim stress for 3 min at 5 degrees C produces antinociception in the tail-flick test in mice by activation of delta opioid receptors in the brain. Also, the inhibition of the tail-flick reflex produced by i.c.v. administration of delta opioid receptor agonists is known to be mediated by spinal gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the cold water swim stress-induced antinociceptive response is mediated by GABA receptors in the spinal cord. First, i.c.v. administration of the delta-2 receptor antagonist, naltriben, but not the delta-1 receptor antagonist, 7-benzylidenenaltrexone, antagonized the cold water swim stress-induced antinociception in ICR mice and confirmed the role of delta-2 receptors in this response. Next, the involvement of spinal GABAA receptors was shown through intrathecal administration of GABAA receptor antagonists, picrotoxin and bicuculline, which inhibited the cold water swim stress-induced antinociceptive response. Thus, the antinociception produced through activation of the delta-2 receptor in the brain by cold water swim stress involved a descending pathway mediated by spinal GABAA receptors. This descending pathway appeared to be the same as that activated by i.c.v. administration of delta-2 opioid agonists in the brain.

Analgesia↗