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PubMed1976

The effect of thermic stress on the somatic reaction of rage and on rapid circling turns, in the cat.

An investigation was made of the effect of thermic stress on the somatic rage reaction and on rapid circling turns in cats awake and free to move in a behavioural cage. An increase in room temperature had a two-phase effect on the excitability of the nervous structures stimulated that is able to evoke the somatic rage reaction and rapid circling turns. The first phase, at room temperature 25 degrees-30 degrees C, was characterized by hypoexcitability; the second phase, appearing after longer periods of exposure and at temperatures above 30 degrees C, was characterized by the onset panting, hyperexcitability of the nervous structures stimulated and then by lowering of the somatic rage reaction threshold and a very significant increase in the number of circling turns. Experimentation on the action of cold external temperature on the excitability of structures involved in evoking the somatic rage reaction and rapid circling turns indicated an increase in their excitability, corresponding to an increase in spontaneous and evoked somatic motor activity.

Anger↗

PubMed2000

Effect of herd environment on the genetic and phenotypic relationships among milk yield, conception rate, and somatic cell score in Holstein cattle.

A total of 248,230 primiparous records of Holstein cows calving from 1987 to 1994 (daughters of 588 sires in 3042 herds) was used to evaluate potential genotype by environment interactions among mature equivalent milk yield, lactation mean somatic cell score, and conception rate at first service. Herds were classified into low and high environmental groups using three different criteria: standard deviation of herd mature equivalent milk yield, a combination of herd mature equivalent milk yield mean and standard deviation, and the herd mean of body weight at first calving divided by age at first calving. Genetic parameters were modeled by using multiple-trait linear mixed models and were fitted using the multiple-trait derivative-free software. Heritabilities for mature equivalent milk yield, lactation mean somatic cell score, and conception rate at first service were 0.221, 0.106, and 0.015 in low environment herds and 0.300, 0.093, and 0.009 in high environment herds, respectively. Genetic (and phenotypic) correlations between mature equivalent milk yield and lactation mean somatic cell score, mature equivalent milk yield and conception rate at first service, and lactation mean somatic cell score and conception rate at first service were 0.277, -0.417, and -0.209, (-0.049, -0.180, and -0.040) and 0.173, -0.318, and -0.144, (-0.087, -0.166, and -0.035) in low and high environment herds, respectively. The genetic correlations between pairs of traits were consistently smaller in high environment herds, suggesting that differences in management between the two environment levels lessened the antagonistic genetic association between the traits studied. A long-range plan for low environment herds should focus on improving the level of management, which would greatly reduce the unfavorable correlated changes in lactation mean somatic cell score and conception rate at first service associated with the genetic improvement of mature equivalent milk yield.

Animals↗

PubMed1983

Cost benefit analysis of lactation therapy with somatic cell counts as indications for treatment.

Lactating dairy cows (487) from five commercial herds were in a study of benefits from lactation therapy of sub-clinical mastitis. Bacterial isolations and composite milk samples for somatic cell counts were taken from each cow each month for 15 mo. Cows (254) in the experimental group were infused with cephapirin in all quarters for two consecutive milkings if somatic cell counts rose above 400,000 cells/ml; 103 cows were so treated. Stepwise regression showed that lactation number, somatic cell counts, days in milk, and percent quarters infected explained variation in milk production, but treatment group, herd, and season did not. Also, there were no significant differences between production of infected experimental and control cows with high somatic cell counts on test dates after treatment. With the experimental program, there was a net loss of +19.65/cow. Intramammary lactation therapy based on somatic cell counts less than 400,000 cells/ml is not recommended.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Epidemiologic considerations in reporting herd somatic cell counts.

The reporting of herd summaries of individual cow somatic cell counts differs between the nine Dairy Records Processing Centers. The objectives of this paper are to review the present reporting; to compare the methods used to calculate herd somatic cell counts; and to discuss the epidemiologic implications of these methods. Estimates of central tendency and frequency distributions are the most commonly used herd summary statistics for somatic cell counts. Analyses of the frequency distributions are less widely available. Potential uses of herd somatic cell counts are to measure one aspect of herd milk quality; to estimate the prevalence of mastitis; to analyze mastitis patterns within the herd; and to investigate new areas for mastitis control research. Presently, the best available methods for these applications appear to be bulk tank somatic cell counts or weighted arithmetic means for gauging milk quality; frequency distributions for estimating mastitis prevalence; analyses of frequency distributions of mean linear score by lactation and stage of lactation for identifying mastitis patterns within a herd; and frequency distributions or estimated incidence rates, adjusted for differences in age and stage of lactation, for investigating new areas for mastitis control research.

Animal Husbandry↗

PubMed1986

Potential of somatic cell concentration in milk as a sire selection criterion to reduce mastitis in dairy cattle.

Lactation records for somatic cell counts in milk, bacteriological culture results, antibiotic treatment for mastitis, and production were formed for cows in 30 cooperating dairy herds in Virginia. A second data set, including somatic cell counts and production information for cows in approximately 400 herds in Virginia (not including the original 30), was used to evaluate sires genetically for somatic cell count. Approximate genetic correlations between measures of cell count and measures of infection ranged from .36 to .67. These were highest (lowest) for frequency of infection by major (minor) pathogens. Corresponding phenotypic correlations were similar but slightly smaller. Neither somatic cell counts nor measures of infection were well correlated with treatment. Production traits generally had small, negative genetic and phenotypic relationships with cell counts, rates of infection, and measures of treatment. Correlations for evaluations of sires for cell count were positive with daughter averages for infection rates (.20 to .38) and treatment measures (.02 to .13). Largest (absolute value) correlations between evaluations of sires for cell count and production traits were for fat percentage (-.38) and fat yield (-.28). Evaluation and selection of sires for decreased somatic cell count may augment management and treatment programs in the reduction of mastitis incidence.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

Relationship of milk proteins in blood with somatic cell counts in milk of dairy cows.

Intramammary leucocytosis was induced by injection of Escherichia coli endotoxin via the teat canal in three lactating Holstein cows. Concentrations of alpha-lactalbumin and casein in blood serum were measured, and somatic cell concentration and yield and composition of milk were determined. Endotoxin injection elicited mean increases of 100-fold in somatic cell concentration and 50% in protein concentration, whereas milk yield declined 5-fold and lactose concentration was halved. Concentrations of alpha-lactalbumin and casein in blood rose from 80 to 1909 and 0 to 1231 ng/ml, respectively. By 96 h postinjection, all variables were approximately equal to those preinjection. In a second study, concentration of alpha-lactalbumin was determined in blood of lactating cows in two herds (n = 332) and related to milk somatic cell count. Concentrations of alpha-lactalbumin in blood were correlated with somatic cell counts (r = .60). Mean concentrations of alpha-lactalbumin increased with increasing cell count even at low somatic cell concentrations (25 to 250 X 10(3)). Concentrations of milk proteins in blood serum apparently reflect competency of the blood-milk barrier and may therefore yield an indirect measure of udder health.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Properties of proteases from milk somatic cells and blood leukocytes.

Proteolytic activity of proteases associated with somatic cells isolated from high SCC milk and proteases associated with leukocytes isolated from bovine blood was assayed at pH 6.6 and 5.2 in a model system consisting of a beta-casein (.96%) substrate in Jenness/Koops buffer. Intact beta-casein and casein proteolysis products were measured by densitometric analysis of SDS-PAGE gels. Relative proteolytic activity was expressed as percentage degradation of beta-casein after 24 h at 37 degrees C per 1 x 10(6) cells/ml. Proteolytic activity associated with somatic cells isolated from bovine milk was 27.5 and 13.6% at pH 6.6 and 5.2, respectively. Proteolytic activity associated with leukocytes isolated from bovine blood was 16.0 and 8.4% at pH 6.6 and 5.2, respectively. Proteolytic activity at pH 6.6 was significantly higher for the somatic cells isolated from milk than for leukocytes isolated from blood. The reason for the difference in proteolytic activity of leukocytes isolated from blood of a healthy cow versus somatic cells isolated from milk produced by a cow with mastitis is not known. Further work is needed to determine whether the difference may be caused by a higher proportion of activated macrophages in somatic cells isolated from milk produced by cows with mastitis than in the leukocytes isolated from blood of healthy cows.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Variation in milk somatic cells of heifers at first calving.

To evaluate variation in milk somatic cells, 24 primiparous cows (paired by calving date) were sampled during the first 75 d of lactation. Milk somatic cell counts were lowest at 9 to 10 wk. For differential cell counts in milk, only percentage of macrophages changed significantly during first 75 d (33% at 1 wk, 25% at 6 wk, and 34% at 11 wk). Epithelial cells were identified and ranged from 11 to 20% of total. For milk somatic cell count, variation between cows within pairs sampled contemporaneously was small (3 to 24%). However, variation between cows was much greater for the differential cell counts (46% of total for lymphocytes and 34% for epithelial cells). Of 1021 quarter foremilk samples, 26 were positive for major pathogens, but 326 were positive for various species. Prevalence of bacteria was significantly higher during first 10 d after calving. Rear quarters had significantly higher bacterial presence: 47% for left rear versus 21% for left front and 37% for right rear versus 24% for right front. Total milk somatic cell count after first calving appears to depend primarily on differences in temporary factors and is not a stable characteristic of individual cows. Proportions of the different somatic cell types in milk may vary consistently by cow in early first lactation.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1995

Nonadditive genetic effects and inbreeding depression for somatic cell counts of Holstein cattle.

A total of 65,491 lactation means of log2-transformed SCC measures were analyzed from first lactation Holstein cows in Ontario. Effects of inbreeding on SCC were estimated by a nonadditive sire and dam model that included additive, dominance, and additive by additive genetic effects and regression of lactation somatic cell score on inbreeding coefficients of the cows. Variance components were estimated using the tildehat approximation to REML. Solutions were by iteration on data. Estimates of heritability for lactation somatic cell score in the narrow sense were .165 and in the broad sense were .203. The additive by additive component (2.5% of the total phenotypic variance) was almost twice as large as the dominance component (1.3%). The regression coefficient of lactation somatic cell score per 1% increase of inbreeding was .012. The average increase of the population mean of lactation somatic cell score caused by a 10% increase of inbreeding coefficient was estimated to be 10.5% of the original phenotypic standard deviation of 1.153. The inbreeding depression was thus relatively low, but, on average, inbred animals tended to have higher lactation somatic cell score. This study provides preliminary evidence that inbreeding is related to disease prevalence in large purebred dairy populations.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Estimation of genetic parameters for test day records of somatic cell score.

The present study estimated variance components for test day records of somatic cell score and production traits. Data consisted of 235,100 test day observations recorded between 1986 and 1994 on lactations 1 to 3 of 15,922 Holstein cows from 143 herds. Records were considered as repeated observations within a lactation and as different traits across lactations. The multiple-trait animal model for analysis included random animal additive genetic and permanent environment effects by lactation. Fixed effects included herd test date and a set of four covariables for days in lactation, estimated by parity, age, and season, which accounted for the shape of the lactation curve. Gibbs sampling chains were carried out separately for somatic cell score and milk production and fat and protein yields. Heritabilities of somatic cell score for lactations 1 to 3 were .09, .09, and .11, respectively. Genetic correlations between lactations were high (.88, .79, and .95 between lactations 1 and 2, 1 and 3, and 2 and 3, respectively). Correlations between permanent environment effects were smaller (.29, .19, and .46 between lactations 1 and 2, 1 and 3, and 2 and 3, respectively). Heritabilities and correlations between permanent environment effects were higher for production traits than for somatic cell score. Genetic correlations between lactations for production traits were similar to those for somatic cell score. Variances between lactations differed significantly, indicating that observations from different lactations should no be considered as repeated observations of the same trait.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Genetic evaluation for somatic cell score with a test day model for multiple lactations.

A multiple lactation model for test day data was applied to predict genetic merit for somatic cell scores of Canadian Holsteins. The model for genetic evaluation included a fixed effect for herd test date, fixed regressions on functions of days of lactation, random effects of permanent environment within lactation, random genetic effects on animal, and residual effects. Records from the first three lactations were used and treated as different traits. Procedures for this model, developed for national genetic evaluation for somatic cell score in Canada, were found to be practical. Use of starting values from the previous genetic evaluation reduced the number of rounds necessary to reach convergence. Test day models were compared with several single-trait models based on lactation average of somatic cell score in terms of computing efficiency and ranking of animals. Differences between EBV from the test day model and EBV from a repeatability model for lactation average were small for bulls with many daughters, but differences were large with EBV from a single-trait model for first lactation average of somatic cell count. Association were desirable for EBV for somatic cell score with EBV for some udder conformation traits, but undesirable for EBV for milk and protein yield.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Relationship between United States and Canadian genetic evaluations of longevity and somatic cell score.

Canadian and US evaluations of Holstein bulls were compared for longevity measures (433 bulls) and somatic cell score (354 bulls). Bulls were required to have a birth year of > or = 1975, daughter information from > or = 20 herds, and a reliability of > or = 50% in both Canada and the US. The number of bulls with longevity evaluations was greater for early years because longevity information was available from lactation data and daughters were required to be > or = 3 yr of age for US evaluations; evaluations for somatic cell score required additional collection of data and did not have corresponding numbers of bulls until the 1980s. Correlation between longevity measures in the US (productive life) and Canada (herd life) was 0.60. This low correlation was expected because US productive life includes yield information, but yield is excluded from Canadian herd life. For evaluations for somatic cell score, the correlation between the two countries was 0.82. Genetic correlations with productive life were estimated to be 0.69 for herd life and 0.81 for herd life combined with protein yield. Conversion equations were developed to predict a US evaluation for somatic cell score from a Canadian evaluation for somatic cell score and to predict a US evaluation for productive life from Canadian evaluations for herd life and yield.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Components of working memory and somatic markers in decision making.

According to Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis, affective reactions ordinarily guide and simplify decision making. In an earlier study, we used a modified version of the gambling task developed by Bechara and colleagues so that we could explore the relations among decision making, working memory (WM) load, and formation of somatic markers. This prior work found that an increased WM load produced by secondary tasks interfered with the development of somatic markers and led to poorer gambling task performance. In the present study, we tested whether secondary tasks affect the executive functions of WM, verbal buffering, or both. Our findings indicate that verbal buffering alone does not interfere with gambling task performance or the development of somatic markers. Interference with the executive functions of WM is necessary to disrupt gambling performance and somatic markers.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Somatic markers, working memory, and decision making.

The somatic marker hypothesis formulated by Damasio (e.g., 1994; Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 1991) argues that affective reactions ordinarily guide and simplify decision making. Although originally intended to explain decision-making deficits in people with specific frontal lobe damage, the hypothesis also applies to decision-making problems in populations without brain injury. Subsequently, the gambling task was developed by Bechara (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994) as a diagnostic test of decision-making deficit in neurological populations. More recently, the gambling task has been used to explore implications of the somatic marker hypothesis, as well as to study suboptimal decision making in a variety of domains. We examined relations among gambling task decision making, working memory (WM) load, and somatic markers in a modified version of the gambling task. Increased WM load produced by secondary tasks led to poorer gambling performance. Declines in gambling performance were associated with the absence of the affective reactions that anticipate choice outcomes and guide future decision making. Our experiments provide evidence that WM processes contribute to the development of somatic markers. If WM functioning is taxed, somatic markers may not develop, and decision making may thereby suffer.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Somatic symptoms as predictors of time to onset of response to fluoxetine in major depressive disorder.

OBJECTIVE: In the present study we assessed the relationship between somatic symptoms and the time to onset of clinical response to fluoxetine in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). METHOD: 87 outpatients (mean age = 41.4 +/- 10.2 years; 59.8% women) with DSM-III-R MDD who had sustained acute response to fluoxetine completed the Symptom Questionnaire (SQ) at baseline. Onset of response was defined as a 30% decrease in the total score for the 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression that led to a 50% decrease by week 8. With the use of 2 separate multiple regressions, controlling for the severity of depression at baseline, we then assessed the relationship between the number of somatic symptoms as assessed by the SQ subscale for somatic symptoms (SQ-SS) and both the time to onset of clinical response and the time to clinical response. The study was conducted between November 1992 and January 1999. RESULTS: A greater number of somatic symptoms at baseline predicted a greater amount of time to onset of clinical response to fluoxetine (p =.0233). The relationship between SQ-SS scores and time to response was not found to be statistically significant (p >.05). CONCLUSION: Somatic symptoms of depression were found to be associated with a delayed onset of antidepressant response to fluoxetine in MDD.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Somatization in Family Practice: Comparing 5 Methods of Classification.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that patients with somatoform disorders are high utilizers of medical care, yet interpretation of studies has been difficult because of variant methods of diagnosis. The goal of this study was to compare 5 different methods of classification on the same group of subjects and to examine prevalence rates of somatoform disorders and medical utilization. METHOD: Subjects completed a demographic questionnaire in the physician's office and the somatization section of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) by telephone. Subsequently, their medical charts were examined. Using the 5 methods of diagnosis, somatizers were compared with nonsomatizers for level of utilization of medical services. The setting was a medical school-based family practice residency training center. Participants were 119 patients waiting to see their family doctors. The main outcome measures were prevalence of somatization symptoms and chart information (utilization, number of health problems). RESULTS: One subject met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV)-based DIS criteria for somatization disorder. With the Bucholz modification for scoring the DIS, 10 subjects were diagnosed with somatization disorder. With the abridged Escobar criteria of 6 symptoms, 7 subjects met diagnostic criteria, while 28 met the criteria for multisomatoform disorder of 3 symptoms, as suggested by Kroenke. The diagnosis of undifferentiated somatoform disorder, requiring only 1 unexplained symptom, was obtained by 94 of the subjects. CONCLUSION: Findings from this study revealed widely divergent prevalence rates of somatoform disorders, depending on methods of diagnosis used. Correlation with rates of medical utilization is suggested as an external criterion for validating diagnostic methods.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1999

The role of somatic disorders and physical injury in the development and course of alcohol withdrawal delirium.

In a retrospective study, we evaluated the role of somatic disease and physical injury in the development and course of alcohol withdrawal delirium. Medical records of 1179 patients treated for alcohol withdrawal in Nowowiejski Hospital in Warsaw from 1973 to 1987 were reviewed using a structured questionnaire. Development, symptoms' severity, and the course of alcohol withdrawal delirium were assessed in possible relation to the somatic state of patients and other variables of alcohol dependence. Development of the first episode of delirium tremens (DT) was associated with the incidence of somatic disease or injury in 19% of cases. Somatic disorders directly preceded the second episode of DT in 73% and the third in 57% of cases. A positive correlation was found between the greater severity and/or longer duration of DT symptoms, and occurrence of pneumonia, coronary heart disease, alcohol liver disease, and anemia, as well as daily amount of alcohol consumed during the last drinking bout. There was no relationship of severity of DT with the duration of alcohol abuse. Early development and severe course of alcohol withdrawal delirium correlated with the late beginning of excessive drinking (over the age of 40) and concomitant abuse of benzodiazepines or barbiturates. We concluded that somatic disorders or physical injury might trigger delirium during alcohol withdrawal, and have essential influence on the symptoms' severity and duration of DT. A more severe course of DT is also correlated with the quantity of alcohol consumed and concomitant abuse of sedatives.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

The features of psychological problems and their significance in patients on hemodialysis--with reference to social and somatic factors.

AIM: For the purpose of identifying the features of psychological problems and their significance in patients on hemodialysis, we analyzed how psychological problems are affected by social and somatic factors. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The subjects all consisted of patients on hemodialysis at the Kidney Center of Fukuoka Red Cross Hospital between December 1994 and December 1996. We used the Cornell medical index health questionnaire on neurosis and the "easily upset or irritated", State-trait anxiety inventory to determine both state and trait anxiety, the Self rating Depression Scale on depression and divided into the patients who demonstrated each psychological problem and those who did not, and then analyzed the psychological problems between the two groups with reference to somatic and social factors which may have led the patients to develop their respective psychological problems. RESULTS: According to a chi-square analysis, neurosis, clinical trait anxiety and clinical state anxiety were all more closely related to somatic factors than to social factors. In contrast to neurosis and anxiety, more social factors than somatic factors were related with "easily upset or factors were related with" easily upset or irritated". "Easily upset or irritated" was significantly related to living with a spouse or with children. In addition, depression was related to various factors including both somatic and social factors. In a stepwise multiple logistic regression analysis, the presence of restless legs also correlated with all the psychological symptoms investigated in this study. The prevalence of depression was also related to the degree of awareness regarding the cause of renal failure (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Our results thus revealed the features of the psychological problems and their significance in patients on hemodialysis.

Anxiety↗