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PubMed2004

Behavioural interventions in the rehabilitation of acute v. chronic non-organic (conversion/factitious) motor disorders.

BACKGROUND: Repeated case series have documented the effectiveness of multidisciplinary in-patient behavioural treatment for conversion disorders. However, in the absence of controlled research, treatment success could be attributed to providing patients with a face-saving opportunity to get better. AIMS: The present study contrasts two behavioural treatments to elucidate the factors underlying successful in-patient rehabilitation of this population. METHOD: Thirty-nine patients underwent a standard behavioural programme. Using a crossover design, patients who did not improve underwent a strategic-behavioural treatment in which they and their families were told that full recovery constituted proof of an organic aetiology whereas failure to recover was definitive proof of a psychiatric aetiology. RESULTS: Chart review indicated that the standard behavioural treatment was effective for 8/9 'acute' patients but only for 1/28 'chronic' patients. Of the 21 patients with chronic motor disorder who then under went the strategic-behavioural intervention, 13 were symptom-free at discharge. CONCLUSIONS: The strategic intervention was superior to standard behavioural treatment for patients with chronic motor disorder. Treatment components previously deemed critical for the effectiveness of behavioural treatment may be unnecessary.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2005

The behavioural transition from straight to curve walking: kinetics of leg movement parameters and the initiation of turning.

The control of locomotion requires the ability to adapt movement sequences to the behavioural context of the animal. In hexapod walking, adaptive behavioural transitions require orchestration of at least 18 leg joints and twice as many muscle groups. Although kinematics of locomotion has been studied in several arthropod species and in a range of different behaviours, almost nothing is known about the transition from one behavioural state to another. Implicitly, most studies on context-dependency assume that all parameters that undergo a change during a behavioural transition do so at the same rate. The present study tests this assumption by analysing the sequence of kinematic events during turning of the stick insect Carausius morosus, and by measuring how the time courses of the changing parameters differ between legs. Turning was triggered reliably at a known instant in time by means of the optomotor response to large-field visual motion. Thus, knowing the start point of the transition, the kinematic parameters that initiate turning could be ranked according to their time constants. Kinematics of stick insect walking vary considerably among trials and within trials. As a consequence, the behavioural states of straight walking and curve walking are described by the distributions of 13 kinematic parameters per leg and of orientation angles of head and antennae. The transitions between the behavioural states are then characterised by the fraction of the variance within states by which these distributions differ, and by the rate of change of the corresponding time courses. The antennal optomotor response leads that of the locomotor system. Visually elicited turning is shown to be initiated by stance direction changes of both front legs. The transition from straight to curve walking in stick insects follows different time courses for different legs, with time constants of kinematic parameters ranging from 1.7 s to more than 3 s. Therefore, turning is a behavioural transition that involves a characteristic orchestration of events rather than synchronous parallel actions with a single time constant.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Safe sexual behaviour among female partners of HIV-infected men in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

A cross-sectional study was designed to assess safe sexual behaviour among heterosexual couples after the woman learned of her partner's infection with HIV. Female partners who had known their partners' serostatus for at least 4 weeks were eligible for participation. Couples were interviewed separately and independent predictors of safe sexual behaviour were identified using multiple logistic regression. Safe sexual behaviour was defined as no unprotected vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse. Of 328 women, 197 (60%) reported safe sexual behaviour since learning of their partners' infection. Significant independent predictors of safe sexual behaviour included older women (>30 years old) (odds ratio [OR]=1.89; 95% confidence intervals [CI]=1.01-3.51), current negative HIV serostatus (OR=2.72; 95% CI=1.50-4.94), advanced clinical stage of the index case (OR=1.96; 95% CI=1.07-3.59), longer duration of relationship (10+ years) (OR= 2.35; 95% CI=1.15-4.82), fewer sex contacts (<100) (OR=2.01; 95% CI=1.14-3.56), only one lifetime partner (OR=2.29; 95% CI=1.26-4.17), non-smoking (OR=2.67; 95% CI=1.43-4.99), not practising oral sex (OR=3.35; 95% CI=1.82-6.19) and previous HIV testing (OR=2.11; 95% CI=1.09-4.07). In addition, women who had known their partner's infection for longer were less likely to report safe sexual behaviour (P < 0.001). Our results indicate that among female partners of HIV-positive Brazilian men, learning of their partner's infection does not uniformly result in safe sexual behaviour. Counselling must emphasize disclosure of serostatus to female partners and target couples with short-term relationships, as well as those where the woman has known about her male partner's infection for a long time, because these are the least likely to maintain safe sexual behaviour.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Choice is good, but relevance is excellent: autonomy-enhancing and suppressing teacher behaviours predicting students' engagement in schoolwork.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: This article examines two questions concerning teacher-behaviours that are characterised in Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) as autonomy-supportive or suppressive: (1) Can children differentiate among various types of autonomy-enhancing and suppressing teacher behaviours? (2) Which of those types of behaviour are particularly important in predicting feelings toward and engagement in schoolwork? It was hypothesised that teacher behaviours that help students to understand the relevance of schoolwork for their personal interests and goals are particularly important predictors of engagement in schoolwork. SAMPLES AND METHODS: Israeli students in grades 3-5 (N = 498) and in grades 6-8 (N = 364) completed questionnaires assessing the variables of interest. RESULTS: Smallest Space Analyses indicated that both children and early adolescents can differentiate among three types of autonomy enhancing teacher behaviours - fostering relevance, allowing criticism, and providing choice - and three types of autonomy suppressing teacher behaviours - suppressing criticism, intruding, and forcing unmeaningful acts. Regression analyses supported the hypothesis concerning the importance of teacher behaviours that clarify the personal relevance of schoolwork. Among the autonomy-suppressing behaviours, 'Criticism-suppression' was the best predictor of feelings and engagement. CONCLUSIONS: The findings underscore the active and empathic nature of teachers' role in supporting students' autonomy, and suggest that autonomy-support is important not only for early adolescents but also for children. Discussion of potential determinants of the relative importance of various autonomy-affecting teacher actions suggests that provision of choice should not always be viewed as a major indicator of autonomy support.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Promoting prosocial pupil behaviour: 2-secondary school intervention and pupil effects.

BACKGROUND: In an earlier article (Mooij, 1999c) a theoretical multilevel model to promote prosocial pupil behaviour by stimulating specific educational conditions was developed. AIMS: To carry out school interventions to check empirically whether pupil level effects occur because of educational changes at the classroom and school level. SAMPLES: Seven secondary schools with relatively high degrees of pupil aggression were selected. Four schools took part as intervention schools, three schools served as control schools. In 1995 (pretest) and 1997 (post-test) pupils and form teachers of the first and third school years participated by completing questionnaires. Within the pupil cohorts, a longitudinal group of 352 pupils was included. METHODS: Pretest questionnaires in 1995 were followed by intervention in the intervention schools. Teachers collaborated with staff and researchers to increase pupils' participation and responsibility in specifying and controlling behavioural and didactic rules, related to didactic differentiation during lessons. The validity of the intervention implementation was checked using qualitative information and quantitative data from both pre- and post-test. Longitudinal intervention effects were tested by applying two-level multiple regression analyses. RESULTS: After controlling for pretest and covariables in school year 1, school intervention effects were found in school year 3 with the prediction of being a perpetrator of aggressive behaviour at school, aggressive behaviour outside school, and criminal behaviour. Some small effects were found with respect to victim behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: Social-pedagogical and didactic class and school variables, but also home variables and support by peers without problematic behaviour, could be integrated more systematically to promote prosocial development of a pupil's behaviour from the beginning in school.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Survivor guilt, submissive behaviour and evolutionary theory: the down-side of winning in social comparison.

In prior research submissive behaviour has been studied in relation to social comparison. Evolutionary theory conceptualized submissive behaviour as a fear-based self-protective strategy when in a subordinate position. In this study we hypothesized that survivor guilt, the type of guilt associated with feeling better off than others, is also linked to submissive behaviour. The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, the Submissive Behaviour Inventory, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised and the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire were administered to a sample of 199 college students. Submissive behaviour was found to be significantly correlated with survivor guilt. Introversion, used as an indirect measure of the fear of being put down, was also correlated with submissive behaviour. A principal components analysis found two components: the first was composed of high loadings of submissiveness, survivor guilt and omnipotent responsibility guilt; the second was composed of high loadings of submissiveness and introversion. This supports the hypothesis that there may be two motivational states related to submissive behaviour, the fear of harm to the self, as described in prior studies, and the fear of harm to another or guilt-based submissive behaviour. We propose that survivor guilt has been selected by evolution as a psychological mechanism supporting group living, and that it may be considered from the perspective of inclusive fitness, reciprocal altruism, and multilevel selection theory.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2002

The relationship between behaviour motivation and social functioning in persons with intellectual impairment.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the social functioning of individuals with severe and profound intellectual impairment who displayed maladaptive behaviour for one particular reason, as assessed by a functional analysis checklist. DESIGN: The social skills of 100 persons with severe and profound intellectual impairment were studied. The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills for the Individuals with Severe Retardation (MESSIER) was used to assess social functioning. Participants were placed into one of four groups according to function of maladaptive behaviour as assessed by the Questions About Behaviour Function Scale (QABF). METHODS: A multivariate analysis of variance and follow-up univariate F-tests were conducted using MESSIER subscales as the dependent variables and QABF function as the independent variable. To identify specific social skill strengths and weaknesses associated with each function group, the means of MESSIER items were calculated for each function group, and the 10 most frequently endorsed items were displayed. RESULTS: Significant differences were found for all the MESSIER subscales except one. A list of most commonly displayed behaviours for each function group was identified. DISCUSSION: This research represents the first attempt to systematically identify social strengths and weaknesses associated with behaviour function. Results revealed a pattern of social behaviours among groups, indicating that positive and negative social behaviour varies somewhat with behaviour motivation. The implications of these findings for clinical utility are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a meta-analytic review.

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has received considerable attention in the literature. The present study is a quantitative integration and review of that research. From a database of 185 independent studies published up to the end of 1997, the TPB accounted for 27% and 39% of the variance in behaviour and intention, respectively. The perceived behavioural control (PBC) construct accounted for significant amounts of variance in intention and behaviour, independent of theory of reasoned action variables. When behaviour measures were self-reports, the TPB accounted for 11% more of the variance in behaviour than when behaviour measures were objective or observed (R2s = .31 and .21, respectively). Attitude, subjective norm and PBC account for significantly more of the variance in individuals' desires than intentions or self-predictions, but intentions and self-predictions were better predictors of behaviour. The subjective norm construct is generally found to be a weak predictor of intentions. This is partly attributable to a combination of poor measurement and the need for expansion of the normative component. The discussion focuses on ways in which current TPB research can be taken forward in the light of the present review.

Behavior↗
PubMed2002

Can the Theory of Planned Behaviour mediate the effects of age, gender and multidimensional health locus of control?

OBJECTIVES: The present paper reports two studies designed to test the ability of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to mediate the effects of age, gender and multidimensional health locus of control (MHLC) on behavioural intentions and behaviour. DESIGN: Two studies are reported. Study 1 (N = 124) employed a cross-sectional design and examined three self-reported health-related behaviours: safe sex (condom use), binge drinking and drink-driving. Study 2 (N = 201) employed a prospective design and examined actual attendance at health screening. METHODS: Respondents completed questionnaires containing measures of MHLC and TPB. The data were analysed using a combination of bivariate correlations and hierarchical multiple regression. RESULTS: Study 1 showed that the TPB was a superior predictor of health-related behavioural intentions than both demographic variables and MHLC. Study 2 corroborated the findings of Study 1, and showed that TPB variables were useful predictors of actual behaviour, although the TPB failed to fully mediate the effects of gender on screening attendance. CONCLUSIONS: Whilst the TPB accounted for significant proportions of the variance in health-related behavioural intentions and behaviour, it failed to completely mediate the effects of demographic variables. Future work is required to identify social cognitive variables that will fully mediate the effects of demographics.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Oviposition behaviour of Gryon gallardoi (Hym.; Scelionidae) on eggs of Spartocera dentiventris (Hem.; Coreidae).

The oviposition behaviour of Gryon gallardoi (Hymenoptera; Scelionidae) on Spartocera dentiventris (Hemiptera; Coreidae) host eggs was investigated in the laboratory. Masses of 12 non-parasitized freshly laid (less than 24 h old) eggs were exposed to 2-5 days old mated females with previous oviposition experience (n = 10). Behaviour was observed for 2 h under the stereomicroscope. The eggs were Then kept individually at 25 degrees +/- 1 degree C/12 h photophase till hatching. The mean number of parasitized eggs was 7.8 +/- 0.81 (mean +/- SE). Five distinct kinds of behaviour were observed: drumming with antennae on the eggs, ovipositor insertion, egg marking, walking and resting. On average, ovipositor insertion was not followed by marking 4.3 +/- 0.76 times per female. In nearly all of these events, parasitism was unsuccessful. Walking and resting were observed less frequently than the other behaviours (1.6 +/- 0.56 and 2.1 +/- 0.48 times/female, respectively). Superparasitism occurred on average 3.6 +/- 0.88 times per egg mass, with 2.7 +/- 0.57 eggs being superparasitized. Among these, on average 87.4 +/- 5.37% led to successful development of an adult parasitoid. The average time spent on the each kind of oviposition behaviour was 1.5 +/- 0.57 min for drumming, 3.9 +/- 0.56 min for ovipositor insertion and 0.4 +/- 0.06 min for marking. There was no significant variation on the duration of each behaviour as the parasitoid progressed in parasitizing an egg mass. Ovipositor insertion almost always (87.58%) occurred in the longitudinal extremities of the egg. In average 31.1 +/- 7.21% of the individual emerging per egg mass were males, the larger proportion of males originating from the 2nd oviposition. The results show a range of oviposition behaviours common to the Scelionidae family. Egg marking behaviour was a good indicator of the effective oviposition by females. Superparasitism is only partially avoided, but its occurrence does not imply a failure of parasitoid emergence. The sex ratio is skewed towards females, and most males come from the first ovipositions.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Effects of aromatizable androgens on aggressive behaviour among rats (rattus norvegicus).

Three experiments were used to tests the applicability of the aromatization hypothesis of androgen action to aggressive behaviour among Norway rats. In Expt 1, administration of testosterone propionate was highly effective in restoring aggressive behaviour to castrated rats while 17 beta-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-3-one was of intermediate effectiveness. Of the steriods tested in Expt 2, androstenedione and testosterone were highly effective, 17 beta, 19-dihydroxyandrost-4-en-3-one was of intermediate effectiveness and cholesterol was ineffective. The results of Expt 3 indicated that treatment with testosterone or oestradiol both resulted in increased aggression while treatment with (5 alpha,17 beta)-17,19-bis(acetyloxy)-andostan-3-one diacetate (5 alpha-19-hydroxytestosterone) was without effect. Androgens which were aromatizable and could be 5 alpha reduced, i.e. testosterone, testosterone propionate and androstenedione, were highly effective in restoring aggressive behaviour; however, two other steroids, 5 alpha,19-hydroxytestosterone which is 5 alpha reduced, and 19-hydroxytestosterone, which can be aromatized, were respectively of low or medium effectiveness on behaviour. However, oestradiol, which did not maintain sexual development of accessory glands, was highly effective in the restoration of aggressive behaviour. Since the behaviourally active steroids in the present experiments were not only those predicted by the aromatization hypothesis, it is proposed that several steroids are capable of activating aggressive behaviour and that the aromatization hypothesis does not adequately explain the hormonal basis of aggressive behaviour among Norway rats.

Aggression↗
PubMed1981

Evidence that a placental factor other than androsterone or dihydrotestosterone inhibits oestrogen-induced lordosis behaviour in pregnant rats.

Daily administration of oestradiol benzoate, beginning 10 days after mating, stimulates lordosis behaviour in deciduomata-bearing pseudopregnant rats, but not in pregnant rats. The inhibition of this behaviour during pregnancy was not prevented by reducing the number of conceptuses to two, by removing the fetuses while leaving the placentas in utero, or by removing the ovaries and administering progesterone to prevent abortion. Removal of the uterus or fetuses and placentas on day 12, however, led to high levels of lordosis behaviour. Thus, it is likely that the placenta produces a factor which inhibits the behavioural responsiveness to oestrogen. Plasma levels of progesterone, androsterone and dihydrotestosterone were higher during the second half of pregnancy than in the second half of pseudopregnancy prolonged by uterine decidualization. The possible involvement of these steroids in the inhibition of lordosis behaviour was investigated by increasing their levels in deciduomata-bearing pseudopregnant rats and determining the effect on oestrogen-induced lordosis behavior. Little suppression of this behaviour was seen when the pseudopregnant rats were treated with progesterone or androsterone whereas treatment with dihydrotestosterone resulted in a significant inhibition of lordosis behavior. However, the dose of dihydrotestosterone required to do so resulted in high, non-physiological plasma levels of this steroid. No inhibition of lordosis behaviour was observed when dihydrotestosterone levels were approximately threefold those normally present in pregnant rats. It is concluded that none of these three steroids is primarily responsible for the suppression of lordosis behaviour during pregnancy.

Androsterone↗
PubMed1986

Activation of sexual behaviour in castrated rats: the role of oestradiol.

Sexual behaviour was induced in castrated male rats with oestradiol-17 beta- or testosterone-filled constant-release implants. Testosterone-induced sexual behaviour was unaffected by treatment with the 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor 17 beta-N,N-diethylcarbamoyl-4-aza-5 alpha-androstan-3-one (4-MA; 16.7 mg/day) but treatment with the aromatization inhibitor 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD; 10 mg/day) prevented testosterone from inducing the behaviour. Sexual behaviour could be activated in castrated rats treated with testosterone plus ATD by treatment with 4-MA or with implants filled with a low dose of oestradiol. Lordosis behaviour induced in ovariectomized rats with testosterone-filled implants and progesterone was blocked by ATD treatment and could not be activated with 4-MA but oestradiol implants restored the display of lordosis in the testosterone plus ATD-treated females. 4-MA inhibited the in-vitro formation of [14C]5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone from [14C]testosterone by combined preoptic and hypothalamic tissue at all doses tested and a high dose of oestradiol exerted a similar effect. The results suggest that androgen aromatization is required for testosterone-activated female sexual behaviour but not for testosterone-activated male sexual behaviour. It is suggested that oestradiol normally acts to control the sexual behaviour of male rats by modifying neural androgen metabolism.

Androgens↗
PubMed1988

Precopulatory behaviour in the male hamster: effect of the 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor 17 beta-N,N-diethylcarbamoyl-4-aza-5 alpha-androstan-3-one.

Three independent components of hamster masculine behaviour (approaching, leaving and sniffing the female) have been shown to depend on both androgenic and oestrogenic action. The behavioural role of 5 alpha-reduced androgens was assessed by blocking 5 alpha-reduction of testosterone by means of 17 beta-N,N-diethylcarbamoyl-4-aza-5 alpha-androstan-3-one (4-MA) through slow-release silicone elastomer implants. Three dose levels of 4-MA were given to intact, sexually active males. The probability of approaching the female and the amount of sniffing directed to her were both decreased, while the probability of leaving the female was increased. Sniffing and the tendency to approach were affected at lower dose levels than was the tendency to leave. The higher dosage of 4-MA also abolished odour-based discrimination between females shown by normal males. These effects of 4-MA on behaviour were confirmed in castrated hamsters maintained on testosterone. The suppressive effects of 4-MA on behaviour were reversed by treatment with 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). We conclude that testosterone maintains sociosexual behaviour in part by conversion to its 5 alpha-reduced metabolites; components of this behaviour differ in their relative dependence on DHT. In this species, DHT is likely to be a behaviourally active metabolite of testosterone involved in the fine control of behaviour.

Androgen Antagonists↗
PubMed1999

Behavioural problems associated with dementia: the role of newer antipsychotics.

Behavioural disorders are a common feature in dementia, especially in the later stages of the disease. The most frequent disorders are agitation, aggression, paranoid delusions, hallucinations, sleep disorders, including nocturnal wandering, incontinence and (stereotyped) vocalisations or screaming. Behavioural disorders, rather than cognitive disorders, are the main reason why caregivers place patients with dementia in a nursing home. However, although behavioural disorders are important, there is still no international agreement with respect to the description and definition of symptoms and syndromes. This also holds true for the wide variety of scales for quantification and measurement of behavioural disorders. Drug therapy should be considered after possible underlying causes such as physical illness, drug adverse effects and environmental stressors have been ruled out, or specifically addressed, and a behavioural approach has also failed. This article briefly reviews the evidence for non-antipsychotic drug therapies, which include a variety of substances. However, antipsychotics are the group of drugs which have been most frequently studied for the treatment of behavioural syndromes in dementia. Drug responsive symptoms include anxiety, verbal and physical agitation, hallucinations, delusions, uncooperativeness and hostility, whereas wandering, hoarding, unsociability, poor self-care, screaming and other stereotyped behaviour seem to be unresponsive to all drugs. Although the use of classical antipsychotics is limited by extrapyramidal symptoms, anticholinergic adverse effects, sedation and postural hypotension, the newer antipsychotics offer the chance of a better risk:benefit ratio. This article reviews the small amount of data published on the use of the newer antipsychotics, and concludes that risperidone at low dosages (0.5 to 2 mg/day) seems to be especially useful for the treatment of behavioural symptoms in dementia because of its negligible anticholinergic adverse effects. The use of clozapine is limited by its anticholinergic activity, at least in dementia of the Alzheimer and Lewy body types. However, in patients with psychosis arising from Parkinson's disease it seems to be the drug of choice, and similar activity is likely for olanzapine. There are no published data on other newer drugs, such as sertindole, quetiapine or ziprasidone. Future studies should also address questions of dementia heterogeneity and should compare different drug treatments and treatment combinations.

Antipsychotic Agents↗
PubMed2005

Effect of divalproex sodium on behavioural and cognitive problems in elderly dementia.

BACKGROUND: Behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) occur in up to 90% of individuals with dementia at some point in their illness. BPSD reduce patient quality of life, cause great distress to caregivers and are the most common reason for institutionalisation. In nursing homes, pharmacological measures (usually antipsychotics or benzodiazepines) are often required to control agitation and aggression in patients with dementia. However, no medications have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for this indication as yet. The antiepileptic agent divalproex sodium may have advantages in this setting because of lower rates of drug interactions and adverse effects in this patient population. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess the impact of treatment with divalproex sodium on behavioural, mood and cognitive measures in a population of elderly nursing home residents with a history of behaviour problems associated with dementia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was a retrospective analysis of a long-term care database which allowed assessment of the impact of divalproex sodium therapy on behavioural, mood and cognitive measures in elderly nursing home residents with a history of dementia-related behaviour problems. Minimum Data Set items relating to problems of behaviour, cognition and mood were collected prior to and after divalproex sodium treatment over a 1-year period. Two-phase generalised linear regression, with fixed intersections at the time of divalproex sodium initiation, was used to estimate trends in each measure prior to and after divalproex sodium initiation. Monotherapy, combination therapy with benzodiazepines and antipsychotics, and dose comparisons of divalproex sodium were studied. RESULTS: In all three situations (i.e. as monotherapy, in combination with benzodiazepines and antipsychotics, and at both higher and lower doses), divalproex sodium therapy was shown to have multiple beneficial effects on various behavioural, mood and cognition indicators in elderly nursing home residents. In general, the data seemed to support more favourable results for the higher divalproex sodium dose group. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the use of divalproex sodium in elderly nursing home residents with a history of dementia and behaviour problems and warrant conduct of prospective, randomised trials of the drug in this setting.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Cognitive determinants of energy balance-related behaviours: measurement issues.

The burden of disease as a result of overweight and obesity calls for in-depth examination of the main causes of behavioural actions responsible for weight gain. Since weight gain is the result of a positive energy balance, these behavioural actions are referred to as 'energy balance-related behaviours' (EBRBs). In the broadest sense, there are only two EBRBs: food intake and physical activity. However, both diet and physical activity are complex behavioural categories that involve a variety of actions. This article discusses the potential problems and opportunities related to the assessment of cognitive determinants of energy intake and energy expenditure behaviours. We argue for the necessity of studying determinants of EBRBs within an energy balance approach, i.e. focusing on energy input as well as output, instead of only studying dietary change or physical activity behaviour. As a result, however, theoretically sound questionnaires assessing determinants of EBRBs are likely to annoy respondents. It is especially the measurement of the behaviours and the use of belief-based constructs that cause questionnaires to be long, which may lead to low response rates and invalid data. In this article, we propose a careful and systematic consideration of the inclusion or exclusion of measures of cognitive determinants. First, if studies show that an EBRB is strongly influenced by environmental factors and is not or only to a minor extent under intentional control, measurement of cognitions is of little use. Second, only when we have proof that attitudes, norms and perceived behavioural control predict intentions, should we aim to assess the underlying beliefs. Third, since assessment of beliefs results in similar or better prediction than using belief-valuation combinations, we should not 'annoy' respondents with valuation items. Finally, we argue that the traditional paper-and-pencil survey is still the most reliable and practical data collection method. However, pilot studies applying computerised adaptive methods to determinants of EBRBs are encouraged.

Cognition↗
PubMed2002

Factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours in young horses: findings of a four year prospective epidemiological study.

Stereotypies are invariant and repetitive behaviour patterns that seemingly have no function, which tend to develop in captive animals faced with insoluble problems and may be indicative of reduced welfare. A 4 year prospective study of the factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours (abnormal behaviour) in a population of 225 young Thoroughbred and part-Thoroughbred horses was conducted between 1995 and 1999. Abnormal behaviour affected 34.7% of the population. Multivariable analysis showed that foals of low- or middle-ranking mares were less likely to develop abnormal behaviour than foals of dominant mares (rate ratio (RR) 0.23, P<0.01; RR 0.48, P<0.01, respectively). Weaning by confinement in a stable or barn was associated with an increased rate of development of abnormal behaviour, compared with paddock-weaning (RR 2.19, P<0.05), and housing in barns, rather than at grass after weaning, was associated with a further increase (RR 2.54, P<0.01). Specific stereotypic and redirected behaviours were then considered as separate outcomes. Crib-biting was initiated by 10.5% of horses at median age 20 weeks, weaving by 4.6% of horses at median age 60 weeks, box-walking by 2.3% of horses at median age 64 weeks and wood-chewing by 30.3% of horses at median age 30 weeks. Wood-chewing developed at a lower rate in horses born to subordinate or mid-ranking mares than in horses born to dominant mares (RR 0.29, P<0.01; RR 0.41, P<0.01, respectively), and at a higher rate in horses kept in barns or stables rather than at grass after weaning (RR 4.49, P<0.001; RR 1A6, P<0.001, respectively). Feeding concentrates after weaning was associated with a 4-fold increase in the rate of development of crib-biting (RR 4.12, P = 0.02). The results of this study support the idea that simple changes in feeding, housing and weaning practices could substantially lower the incidence of abnormal behaviour in young horses.

Age Factors↗