Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Urbanization”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 829 records · Page 46Linked to original sources
PubMedDate not supplied

Health care for children and youth in the United States: annual report on patterns of coverage, utilization, quality, and expenditures by a county level of urban influence.

OBJECTIVE: To examine child and hospital demographics and children's health care coverage, use, expenditures, and quality by a county-level measure of urban influence. METHODS: Two national health care databases serve as the sources of data for this report: the 2002 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) and the 2002 Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) and State Inpatient Databases (SID) from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP). In both data sets, county urbanicity is defined by use of a collapsed version of the 2003 Urban Influence Codes, to distinguish among children residing in and hospitals located in large metropolitan (metro) counties, small metro counties, micropolitan counties, and noncore counties. RESULTS: Demographics. In large metro counties, greater percentages of the child population are Hispanic or black non-Hispanic than in small metro, micropolitan, and noncore counties; in micropolitan and noncore counties, higher proportions of children are below 200% of the federal poverty level than in large metro and small metro counties. Noncore areas have a greater percentage of children in fair or poor health compared with those in small metro and micropolitan counties. Most hospitals are located in large and small metro areas, and large metro areas have a higher proportion of teaching hospitals compared with other areas. Health care. In general, there were no overall differences by place of residence in the proportion of children with and without insurance, although differences emerged in subpopulations within Urban Influence Code types. Hispanic children residing in large metro counties were more likely to be uninsured than those in small metro counties. Overall, the proportion of children with at least one dental visit was larger in small metro areas compared with both large metro and noncore areas. The proportion of children with medicines prescribed was generally lower in large metro areas compared with all other areas both overall and among subpopulations of children. Children in noncore areas were more likely to have a hospital inpatient stay and any emergency department use compared with children in large metro areas. Children in large metro counties had longer average inpatient stays and a higher hospital inpatient charge per day compared with children in all other counties. Although most hospitalizations for children from large metro areas occurred in large metro areas, over half of hospitalizations for noncore children occurred outside of noncore counties. Further, children from noncore counties appear to be hospitalized for ambulatory sensitive conditions more than children from all other areas. CONCLUSIONS: County-level data analyses performed using a collapsed version of the Urban Influence Codes with MEPS and HCUP data shed additional light on the health care patterns for children that were not previously evident when only the dichotomous metropolitan/nonmetropolitan geographic schema was used.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in the milk of urban women and nomadic Fulani of northern Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Trans fatty acids (TFAs) and conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are present in dairy products and human milk and can have detrimental and beneficial effects in humans. The content of TFAs and CLAs in milk is determined largely by the diet of the mother. METHODS: We compared the proportions of TFAs and CLAs in the milk of rural Fulani in northern Nigeria who consume dairy products to that of women living in an urban center who consume little in the way of dairy products. Lactating Fulani women (n=41) and women residing in the city of Jos, Nigeria (n=41) were recruited into the study. We predicted that the milk of the Fulani pastoralists would contain higher amounts of TFAs and CLAs compared to their urban counterparts. RESULTS: The mean total TFA proportions for the Fulani and urban women were 0.22% and 0.34%, respectively, and were not significantly different. The percentages of CLAs in milk fat were not different between rural and urban women (0.16% vs 0.14%). These TFA and CLA values were 4- to 10-fold lower than for milk of women elsewhere in the world. CONCLUSIONS: The percentages of TFAs and CLAs in milk were not different between rural and urban dwellers in northern Nigeria whose diets differ greatly in the amounts of dairy products they contain. However, the fact that the percentages of TFAs and CLAs in the milk of Nigerian women were much lower than the percentages reported from other parts of the world may have implications for the long-term growth and development of infants in the northern Nigeria and elsewhere in the Western Sahel.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Analyses of ozone in urban and rural sites in Málaga (Spain).

Ozone concentrations were measured at two (urban and a rural) sites near the city of Málaga (Spain). The aim of this study was to determine the daily, monthly and seasonal variation patterns of ozone concentrations at both sites and to study the possible regional influences. The daily variations mostly have the usual features with the afternoon maximum and the night minimum being more pronounced in the urban area. The average monthly concentrations throughout the year start to increase in March reaching their maximum values in July for the urban site. However, in the rural area, the monthly variations are smaller reaching their maximum value in June. The hourly evolution of the ozone concentrations in both sampling sites is well defined in spring and summer and not so well defined in autumn and winter. Taking into account the four seasons, the rural concentrations are higher than the urban ones. Summer is the season when there are similar concentrations at both sampling sites. Average hourly summer afternoon ozone for the hours 12:00-20:00 LST exceeded the 110 microg m(-3) European Union guidelines for human health for 8 h ozone exposure at the urban and rural sites.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Was there an urban height penalty in Spain, 1840-1913?

We explore whether there was an urban height penalty in Spain during the period of early industrialization from 1840 to 1913, using data from Spain's Southeastern coast and from Castile-Leon. Our results indicate that in the Mediterranean Coast of Southeastern Spain urban heights were well above rural ones for most of the period considered. In Castile-Leon, however, urban and rural heights were about the same until 1870 but urban heights were intermittently above rural ones thereafter. Hence, in Spain urban heights were not always below rural ones in stark contrast to the pattern obtained in other parts of Europe and North America.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2004

Characteristics and health implications of fine and coarse particulates at roadside, urban background and rural sites in UK.

Recent studies have pointed to evidence that fine particles in the air could be significant contributors to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and mortality. Epidemiologists looking at the health effects of particulate pollution need more information from various receptor locations to improve the understanding of this problem. Detailed information on temporal, spatial and size distributions of particulate pollution in urban areas is also important for air quality modellers as well as being an aid to decision and policy makers of local authorities. This paper presents a detailed analysis of temporal and seasonal variation of PM(10) and PM(2.5) levels at one urban roadside, one urban background and one rural monitoring location. Levels of PM(10), PM(2.5) and coarse fraction of particulates are compared. In addition, particulate levels are compared with NO(2) and CO concentrations. The study concludes that PM(10) and PM(2.5) are closely related at urban locations. Diurnal variation in PM(2.5)/PM(10) ratio shows the influence of vehicular emission and movement on size distribution. This ratio is higher in winter than in summer, indicating a build-up or longer residence time of finer particulates or washout due to wet weather in winter. In the second part of this study, a disease burden analysis is carried out based on the dose-response relationships recommended by the UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution. The disease burden analysis indicates that if Marylebone Road (MR) levels of PM(10) were prevalent all over London, it will result in around 2.5% increase in death rates due to all causes. Whereas, if Bloomsbury (BB) levels were prevalent in London, which is more likely to occur as this is more representative of the urban background environment to which people in London are likely to be exposed, the corresponding increase would be around 1.7%. Considering this, in London, at Bloomsbury levels, 973 deaths and 1515 respiratory hospital admissions (RHA) are attributable to PM(10) while 2140 RHA are attributable to NO(2). After deducting the disease burden due to background levels at Rochester (RC), PM(10) emission caused by anthropogenic activities in London equates to 273 additional deaths and 410 additional RHA, while NO(2) account for additional 1205 incidences of RHA.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Road de-icing salt as a potential constraint on urban growth in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada.

North America's fifth most populated municipality--the Greater Toronto Area (GTA)--is undergoing rapid urban development with serious questions being raised regarding the long-term impacts of urban growth on the quality and quantity of ground and surface water. Degradation of groundwater quality by NaCl de-icing salt is the primary concern since there are no cost effective alternatives to NaCl de-icing salt and there is little evidence that salt loadings to the subsurface can be significantly reduced. In 2001, the issue acquired a new sense of urgency when de-icing chemicals containing inorganic chloride salts (with or without ferrocyanide de-caking agents) were designated as toxic under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. To heighten concerns, future growth in the GTA will inevitably take place in areas where groundwater is regularly used for potable supply. Studies using groundwater flow and transport models show that significant deterioration of groundwater quality can be expected in shallow aquifers as a result of urban development with chloride concentrations approaching the drinking water quality standard of 250 mg/l. Results demonstrate that urban planning needs a fresh approach that explicitly includes groundwater protection and aquifer management in the decision-making process, clearly defines acceptable environmental performance standards and makes greater use of groundwater models to evaluate alternative urban designs.

Canada↗
PubMed2007

An analysis of urban development and its environmental impact on the Tampa Bay watershed.

Urbanization has transformed natural landscapes into anthropogenic impervious surfaces. Urban land use has become a major driving force for land cover and land use change in the Tampa Bay watershed of west-central Florida. This study investigates urban land use change and its impact on the watershed. The spatial and temporal changes, as well as the development density of urban land use are determined by analyzing the impervious surface distribution using Landsat satellite imagery. Population distribution and density are extracted from the 2000 census data. Non-point source pollution parameters used for measuring water quality are analyzed for the sub-drainage basins of Hillsborough County. The relationships between 2002 urban land use, population distribution and their environmental influences are explored using regression analysis against various non-point source pollutant loadings in these sub-drainage basins. The results suggest that strong associations existed between most pollutant loadings and the extent of impervious surface within each sub-drainage basin in 2002. Population density also exhibits apparent correlations with loading rates of several pollutants. Spatial variations of selected non-point source pollutant loadings are also assessed.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2006

Risk factors in urban road traffic accidents.

INTRODUCTION: The urban road traffic accident (RTA) risks for the city of Zagreb, Croatia, from 1999 through 2000 were analyzed with the aim of reducing the increasing injury incidence. METHOD: Simple and bivariate analysis using chi(2), odds ratio, and confidence interval of 95% was used to determine risks in three outcome groups: killed, severely, and mildly injured. RESULTS: There were 528 RTA victims consisting of 260 severely, 213 mildly injured, and 55 killed at the scene of an accident and during transportation. More fatal accidents occurred during night hours (OR=3.78; 95% CI, 2.08-6.85), on urban road links (OR=2.33; 95% CI, 1.30-4.19), and at exceeding speed limit (OR=2.56; 95% CI, 1.43-4.61). More people were injured than killed on urban junctions (OR=5.27; 95% CI, 2.21-12.57). The highest combined risk of dying or being severely injured was found in males, driving at excessive speed, on urban links, and during bad visibility (OR=16.15; 95% CI, 3.901-66.881). CONCLUSION: These results will influence the urban traffic police enforcement measures, which will change inappropriate behavior of drivers and protect the least experienced road users.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

Physical activity and blood lipids in rural and urban Tanzanians.

BACKGROUND: Physical inactivity and raised blood lipids are two powerful risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Incidence and mortality from CHD are expected to increase in developing countries. However, studies on the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in Africa are rare. In this study we examined the level of physical activity and serum lipids in rural and urban Tanzanians. METHODS: Rural and urban inhabitants, n=985, mean age 43.8 years [SD, +/-8.9] were investigated. Physical activity level (PAL) was assessed by an interview-administered questionnaire and blood samples were collected and analysed for serum lipids. RESULTS: The rural population (n=501) reported a substantially higher PAL than the urban population (n=484). They also had significantly lower mean weight, body mass index (BMI), T-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and HDL-cholesterol, T-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio, triglycerides and Apolipoprotein A-1. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that the urban Tanzanians have a considerably lower physical activity level and a more unfavourable lipid pattern than rural Tanzanians. These findings underline the importance of undertaking preventive measures to counter the increasing incidence of CHD in urban African populations.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Use of dogs as indicators of metal exposure in rural and urban habitats in NW Spain.

Many different species have been used in environmental biomonitoring studies in diverse habitats including forest, farmland, and urban and sub-urban areas. However, there is little information on domestic animals living in rural or urban habitats and exposed to the same pollutants as the human population. In this connection, pets could prove to be good indicators of human metal exposure since they closely share the same environment as their owners, and are therefore exposed, at least in part, to the same pollutants. The present study investigated toxic metal exposure in dogs in NW Spain and compared metal exposures between dogs from rural and urban habitats, considering the influence of diet, sex and age. Samples of liver and kidney from 57 male and female dogs, aged between 6 months and 18 years, were collected after euthanasia at veterinary clinics. Samples were acid-digested and metal concentrations determined by ICP-MS. Geometric mean concentrations of metals in the liver and kidney (microg/kg wet weight) were 12.6 and 15.9 for arsenic, 58.0 and 175 for cadmium, 32.7 and 53.4 for mercury, and 57.7 and 23.1 respectively. Hepatic lead concentrations were significantly higher (p<0.05) in dogs fed commercial diets than dogs fed home-made feed (32%) or a mixture of commercial and home-made feeds (95%). Mercury concentrations in the kidney were significantly higher (3-fold, p<0.05) in dogs from urban areas than in dogs from rural areas. Cadmium levels in kidney were significantly higher (p<0.05) in females (67%) and increased with age (p<0.001). Although no human samples were obtained in this study and no direct correlations between dogs and human metal exposure have been conducted, given our results pets could be suggested as surrogate indicators of human metal exposure.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed2006

A distinct urban biogeochemistry?

Most of the global human population lives in urban areas where biogeochemical cycles are controlled by complex interactions between society and the environment. Urban ecology is an emerging discipline that seeks to understand these interactions, and one of the grand challenges for urban ecologists is to develop models that encompass the myriad influences of people on biogeochemistry. We suggest here that existing models, developed primarily in unmanaged and agricultural ecosystems, work poorly in urban ecosystems because they do not include human biogeochemical controls such as impervious surface proliferation, engineered aqueous flow paths, landscaping choices, and human demographic trends. Incorporating these human controls into biogeochemical models will advance urban ecology and will require enhanced collaborations with engineers and social scientists.

Biochemical Phenomena↗
PubMed1998

Prevalence of taeniasis and cysticercosis in a population of urban residence in Honduras.

To determine the prevalence of antibodies to Taenia solium and taeniasis in a population of urban residence, an epidemiological study was carried out in a military institution located in Tegucigalpa, the capital city of Honduras. A total of 404 persons were interviewed to collect epidemiological data, investigate antibodies to T. solium cysticercus by the enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) assay and taeniasis by Ritchie's concentration technique. A total of 41 persons that were living at the headquarters and were traveling frequently to their rural hometowns were regarded as rural residents, the remaining 363 persons were considered urban residents. The seroprevalence of antibodies was 22% (9/41) in the rural residents and 15% (54/363) in the urban residents. The overall seroprevalence was 15.6% (63/404). Analyses of risk factors for seropositivity in the urban residents showed that seropositivity was statistically associated with poor household conditions such as raising pigs (odds ratio (OR), 5.39; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.42-19.50), lack of potable water (OR, 3.66; CI, 1.25-9.94), lack of sanitary toilet (OR, 2.92; CI, 1.35-6.05) and earthen floor (OR, 2.48; CI, 1.28-4.73). Also seropositivity was associated with low academic education (OR, 2.5O; CI, 1.33-4.69) and lack of knowledge about the parasite (OR, 2.39; CI, 1.26-4.49). Out of 328 persons examined for intestinal parasites, two soldiers (0.6%) coming from rural areas were identified as Taenia sp. carriers. T. solium was identified in one case. Although T. solium infections originate and are more prevalent in rural villages, the high seroprevalence found in this study indicates that they can also be found at important levels in urban communities. Migration of tapeworm carriers from rural areas to the city grants the transmission of cysticercosis when poor environmental and social conditions are present.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Rural and urban Midwestern United States contraception practices.

To address a paucity of demographic data on rural United States contraception practices, 370 randomly selected menstruating women, age 13-55 years, living in rural and urban Illinois and Missouri answered interview questions. Women with relatively few children and living in urban areas were likely to practice contraception more than those with relatively few children and living in rural areas, p < 0.01. In Illinois, more rural (23%) than urban (2%) women chose sterilization, p < 0.01. Single status was more frequent in Chicago (41%) and rural Missouri (32%) than in rural Illinois (19%), p < 0.002, and extant research links single status with risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Condom use did not differ significantly by locale, p > 0.05. Urban-rural differences in contraception practices may be a function of life style choices (e.g. urban women may practice contraception to postpone having children, whereas rural women may practice contraception to prevent having more children after families are complete). Results do not strongly support that locale differences in contraception practices are a function of concern about contracting STDs.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Gender and rural-urban differences in reported health status by older people in Bangladesh.

The study aims to (i) describe regional variation and gender differences in health status of older people (60 years and older) in Bangladesh, indicated by self-reported health problems and functional ability; (ii) explore influence of socio-economic factors on health status of older people. In a cross-sectional study in rural and urban Bangladesh, 696 older persons were asked about their health problems and ability to manage activities of daily living (ADL). More than 95% of older people reported health problems. Approximately 80% of elderly women in both the regions reported having four or more health problems compared with 42% and 63% elderly men in the urban and rural regions, respectively. More women (urban: 55%; rural: 36%) than men (urban: 32%; rural: 22%) also reported difficulties with ADL. Irrespective of age, sex and area of residence, those reporting greater number of health problems were more likely to report difficulty with at least one ADL task. Reporting pattern of specific health problems varied between urban and rural regions. Socio-economic indicators were found to have little influence on reporting of health problems, particularly in the rural region. Observed regional difference may be related to the influence of social and environmental factors, and level of awareness concerning certain health conditions.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2002

Age-adjusted mortality and its association to variations in urban conditions in Shanghai.

The objective of this study was to explore the association between health and urbanization in a megacity, Shanghai, by calculating the age-adjusted mortality ratio by ward-unit of Shanghai and by examining relationships between mortalities and urban indicators. Crude mortality rates and age-adjusted mortality ratios by ward-unit were calculated. Demographic, residential environment, healthcare, and socioeconomic indicators were formulated for each of the ward-units between 1995 and 1998. Correlation and Poisson regression analyses were performed to examine the association between urban indicators and mortalities. The crude mortality rate by ward-unit in 1997 varied from 6.3 to 9.4 deaths per 1000 population. The age-adjusted mortality ratio in 1997 by ward-units as reference to the average mortality of urban China varied from 57.8 to 113.3 within Shanghai. Age-adjusted mortalities were inversely related with indicators of a larger floor space of dwellings per population, a larger proportion of parks, gardens, and green areas to total land area; a greater number of health professionals per population; and a greater number of employees in retail business per population. Spacious living showed independent association to a higher standard of community health in Shanghai (P < 0.05). Consequences of health policy and the developments of urban infrastructural resources from the viewpoint of the Healthy Cities concept were discussed.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2002

Weathering of radiocaesium contamination on urban streets, walls and roofs.

Recent investigations in Russia have emphasised the significance of dose contributions from contamination on urban streets and roof pavings, and, typically to a lesser extent, walls in the urban environment. The crucial factor determining the magnitude of these contributions is the retention of the contamination by the different types of urban surface. Since the Chernobyl accident, a series of long-term field studies has been carried out on urban streets, walls and roofs, to examine the weathering processes of 137Cs on the various surface types. The derived time-functions are applied to estimate resultant long-term doses to inhabitants of an urban centre. The paper highlights the effect on caesium retention of surface material characteristics.

Cesium↗
PubMed2003

Comparing the attitudes of urban and rural Iranian women toward menopause.

OBJECTIVES: This study was designed to compare the attitudes of urban and rural Iranian women toward menopause. The socio-cultural context of urban Tehranian women is considerably more westernized than that of rural Semiromian women. Our original hypothesis was that urban Tehranian women would have a more negative outlook on menopause than rural women. This hypothesis was drawn from previous work implicating the youth-oriented culture of the west as responsible for the negative attitude of western women toward menopause. METHODS: A questionnaire with eight questions regarding major psychosocial issues that are of importance to menopausal women was prepared and administered to a group of 70 Tehranian and 49 Semiromian women. RESULTS: In contrast to the initial hypothesis, analysis revealed that rural Iranian women have a more negative attitude towards menopause than urban Iranian women. CONCLUSION: The more negative attitude of the rural women toward menopause in large part reflected the higher priority they placed on fertility than did their urban counterparts. Further, cross-cultural studies will illuminate exactly which social and cultural factors play a role in both the physical and psychological aspects of menopause.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2001

A prospective study of morbidity and mortality rates among farmers and rural and urban nonfarmers.

Farmers are known to have lower morbidity and mortality rates than the mean for other occupational groups in the general population. Whether this is due to the urban-rural health gradient or to occupational factors related to farming is not clear. To explore this issue, we conducted a prospective study of farmers and matched rural and urban referents. Official hospital admission and mortality data for the years 1989-1996 were obtained. The relative risk of being admitted to hospital were 10% higher among rural and urban referents than among the farmers. The biggest differences were seen for mental and cardiovascular disorders. The odds of dying during follow-up did not differ between the two rural groups but were doubled among urban referents. In conclusion, the lower morbidity and mortality rates among farmers are partly due to the urban-rural health gradient but in addition salutogenic factors linked to farming seem to be active.

Adolescent↗