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PubMed1990

Pemphigus antibodies and shedding snake serum enhance susceptibility of epidermal keratinocytes in natural cytotoxic reactions.

In order to clarify the role of natural cytotoxicity (NC) in the damage of epidermal keratinocytes (EK) in pemphigus vulgaris (PV) we used the direct 51Cr-release assay in studying the cytotoxic activity of large grandular lymphocytes (LGL), obtained from 34 acute PV patients and 19 healthy donors against EK of PV patients, donors, intact newborn BALB/c mice and mice with experimental PV, shedding and non-shedding grass snakes. We also investigated the effect of pemphigus antibodies and shedding snake serum protein (SSSP) upon EK sensitivity to cytotoxic effects of NC effectors. In other experiments, studied were the amount of serine proteinase secreted by donor LGL in the presence of membrane antigen of antibody- or SSSP-transformed EK, and direct effect of pemphigus antibodies and SSSP upon the release of radioactive label and endoproteinases from EK. It was found that EK, which had interacted with pemphigus antibodies or SSSP, became a sensitive target for NC effectors. Membrane antigen of antibody- and SSSP-transformed human, murine and snake EK induces the secretion of endproteinases by NC effector cells. The conclusion was made that the effect of both pemphigus antibodies and SSSP on EK resulted in the emergences of a new antigen on EK cellular membrane which is recognized by NC effectors and plays the role of the ligand in receptor/ligand interaction between LGL and their targets.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Anticholinesterase therapy for patients with ophthalmoplegia following snake bites: report of two cases.

Although ophthalmoplegia following snake bites is not indicative of a serious neurotoxic complication, symptoms of diplopia, dizziness and ocular discomfort can be emotionally devastating for patients. The authors experienced two cases of ophthalmoplegia following snake bites in Korea. The patients complained of diplopia that had developed several hours after the snake bites. The diplopia did not improve with antivenom treatment, but resolved completely after several injections of neostigmine.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Metacercariae of Pharyngostomum cordatum found from the European grass snake, Rhabdophis tigrina, and its experimental infection to cats.

The metacercariae of Pharyngostomum cordatum were found naturally infected in the European grass snake, Rhabdophis tigrina, purchased from a local snake collector in Jinju, Kyongsangnam-do. They were experimentally fed to several kinds of animals such as mice, rats, hamsters, ducklings, a dog, and cats. The adult worms were recovered from the cats 5 weeks after the infection, but none from other animals. The measurements and other morphological characters of the metacercariae and adults were both compatible with those of P. cordatum described by previous authors. The present study confirmed that the snake, Rhabdophis tigrina, serves as a second intermediate (or paratenic) host of P. cordatum in Korea.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Changes in coagulation effects by venoms of Crotalus atrox as snakes age.

Venom samples separately collected at monthly intervals from three Crotalus atrox specimens as they aged from 2 to 22 months showed many quantitative changes of biological activities. But more important were qualitative changes of coagulation activity. Up to 8 months the venoms clotted fibrinogen solutions directly. At 9 to 10 months, plasma was clotted but not fibrinogen. Subsequently the venoms no longer clotted plasma. Qualitative venom changes with growth of snakes could explain some of the conflicting reports both on clinical aspects of snake bite in man and on experimental venom work. The findings emphasize the importance for clinicians dealing with snake bite to monitor the clot-quality of their patient's blood--a simple bedside test for defibrinogenation, no-clot indicating zero fibrinogen and speck-clot representing fibrinogen concentrations under 50 mg/100 ml. With strongly defibrinating venoms, non-clotting blood is a very sensitive sign of systemic envenoming. In contrast, the relatively feeble defibrinating activity of juvenile C. atrox venom suggests that, if the blood is non-clotting in C. atrox bites, this indicates the victim has received a potentially lethal or near-lethal dose of venom urgently requiring effective antivenom therapy.

Aging↗
PubMed1980

Trypsin fails as Australian snake bite cure.

Trypsin has been claimed a new and effective treatment for venomous snake bite. We found that significant inactivation of snake venom lethal potency occurred in vitro when trypsin was incubated with venom and subsequently injected into mice. Premixing of tiger snake venom (TSV) and trypsin just before injection did not significantly increase the survival rate of mice over that of controls injected with TSV alone. Trypsin injected 10 to 30 minutes after TSV injection did not increase the survival rate of mice compared with controls. Specific antivenom was effective as an antidote when there was a 10 minute delay after venom injection. There was varying susceptibility of different venoms to trypsin inactivation in vivo.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

First-aid for snake-bite: efficacy of a constrictive bandage with limb immobilization in the management of human envenomation.

A herpetologist was bitten on the thumb by a common brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis). A constrictive bandage to impede lymphatic and capillary flow was applied, and the upper limb was immobilized. Two hours after the bite, there were no signs of symptoms of envenomation and venom (to a sensitivity of 0.5 ng/mL) was undetectable in serum and urine. Within five minutes of removal of the constrictive bandage, significant signs of envenomation developed, and serum and urine levels of venom rose significantly. The patient received two ampoules of brown-snake antivenom, and had recovered within six hours. No anaphylaxis of other allergic phenomena occurred, despite the fact that three other doses of antivenom had been administered in the preceding 36 months for prior elapid envenomation. By means of an experimental whole-mouse technique, and an enzyme-linked immunospecific assay (ELISA) system, the snake involved was shown to deliver 4.91 mg of venom in an average bite. A constrictive bandage properly applied to impede lymphatic and capillary flow, together with limb immobilization, is effective in the field management of human elapid envenomation.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Acute renal failure after envenomation by the common brown snake.

A non-fatal case of acute renal failure after envenomation by a common brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis) is described. The renal failure required dialysis but resolved rapidly. There were no signs of neurotoxic envenomation or myoglobinuria. A mild disturbance of coagulation was noted with severe thrombocytopenia. This is the first documented case of renal failure (acute tubular necrosis) after envenomation by the common brown snake to present with this clinical picture. It is also the first clinical evidence that an Australian snake venom may contain a direct nephrotoxic component.

Acute Kidney Injury↗
PubMed1994

Morphology, ultrastructure and taxonomic status of Toddia sp. in northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon sipedon) from Ontario, Canada.

Inclusions characteristic of an infection caused by Toddia sp. were found in the erythrocytes and erythroblasts of 15 of 26 northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon sipedon) collected near Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Erythrocytes contained translucent inclusions, small acidophilic bodies, and square-shaped crystalloid structures. Erythrocytes infected with Toddia sp. were more rounded than uninfected erythrocytes and had pycnotic nuclei. We observed icosahedral virus particles measuring 195 to 210 nm formed from a membrane-bounded viral assembly site in the cytoplasm of the host erythrocyte. As a result of the viral identity of this parasite, we recommend that the etiologic agent of Toddia sp. infections from this and other species of North American snakes be renamed Snake Erythrocytic Virus.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Nephrotoxicity in snake envenomation.

There is a broad spectrum of renal involvement following snake envenomation. At the clinical level the renal manifestation may be absent or minimal. Mild proteinuria with abnormal urinary sediment may be observed. Significant proteinuria is uncommon. Hematuria and hemoglobinuria are seen in envenomation by vipers or crotalids, while myoglobinuria follows envenomation of sea snakes or elapids. Acute renal failure can occur in these snake bites. All renal structures can be involved. Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis is common. Tubular necrosis is the important pathological counterpart of acute renal failure. Three mechanisms including hemodynamic alterations, immunologic reactions, and direct nephrotoxicity are incriminated in the pathogenesis of renal lesions.

Acute Kidney Injury↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Epidemiological and clinical aspects of snake bites in the municipalities of the state of Amazonas, Brazil].

In the State of Amazonas, accidents with snakes are a public health problem. For this reasons, the objective of this work was to carry out a descriptive study of the snake accidents attended in the health units of 34 municipalities, one district and two border platoons in the State of Amazonas. The characteristics most commonly observed among those involved in snake accidents were: farmers (50. 4%), male (81.3%), belonging to the working age-group (72.1%), bitten on an upper limb (88.5%) by a "jararaca" (48.6%) or a "surucucu" (46.8%) in the rural part of the municipality (70.2%). The local signs and symptoms most frequently observed in those who received medical care more than 6 hours after the accident (57.3%) were edema (76.9%), pain (68.7%), erithema (10.2%) and hemorrhage (9. 3%). The systemic manifestation most frequently observed was hemorrhage (18.8%). Serotherapy was administered in only 65.9% of patients, the intravenous route being the route most commonly used to administer the antivenin (52.3%), while other non- recommended routes were widely used. In the majority of patients the antivenin given was antibotropic. The most frequent complications were: abscess 13.7%, necrosis 12.3%, secondary infection 8.3%, renal insufficiency 2.5% and gangrene 2.5%. The medical procedures most used in the treatment of these complications were drainage 52.6%, debridement 28.9%, amputation 10.5%, surgical cleaning 5.3% and peritoneal dialysis 2.6%. The fatality rate was 1%.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Neuropeptide tyrosine-like immunoreactivity (NPY-LI) in ganglion neurons in the adrenal gland of the flat snake (Waglerophis merremii).

In previous morphological and histochemical studies on the adrenal gland of the flat snake, no data demonstrating the existence of ganglion neurons has been reported. The aim of this paper was therefore to establish the presence of ganglion neurons in the adrenal gland of the flat snake Waglerophis merremii and, further to study their chemical phenotype using immunohistochemistry. Our results showed the presence of cells which were immunolabelled with the neuronal marker neurofilament 10 and were thus identified as large ganglion neurons. These cells were localized in the dorsal ribbon of the gland, suggesting a noradrenergic phenotype, exhibited long processes with a longitudinal direction and co-expressed neuropeptide tyrosine- (NPY) and tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactivities (-LI). In addition, NPY-immunoreactive (-IR) fibers were recognized with a wide distribution throughout the gland whereas vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-IR fibers were only observed between clusters of cortical and adrenergic chromaffin cells. No cells containing VIP-LI were detected within the gland. Based on their histochemical phenotype, ganglion cells containing NPY and TH could correspond to ganglion neurons type I of the rat. The possible absence of type II ganglion neurons in the adrenal gland of the snake is discussed.

Adrenal Medulla↗
PubMed2000

[Snake bites and calcium preparations].

Exact statistical data about snake bites are mostly coming from developed countries. In the United States, for example, 10 to 15 persons die because of a snake bites per annum. In the whole world, according to WHO data from 1983, 10,000 individuals die per annum. In Europe, one case of death occurs in 2 to 3 years. Epidemiological studies, carried out in different countries, showed that a half of the victims came in Emergency Medical Service (EMS) with mild signs of poisoning or without any sign at all. In Mostar, 189 patients were admitted for medical treatment in ten years period (1972-1983) and there was no death case. In the period 1998-2000, increased number of cases snake bites was notified. Two cases were with severe clinical signs and we want to present them in our paper.

Aged↗
PubMed1975

Laser Raman scattering of neurotoxins isolated from the venoms of sea snakes Lapemis hardwickii and Enhydrina schistosa.

The venoms of sea snakes (family: Hydrophiidae) contain potent neurotoxins which bind to the acetylcholine receptor in the neuromuscular junction. A major toxin was isolated from the venoms of the sea snakes Lapemis hardwickii and Enhydrina schistosa according to previously published methods. These pure toxins were studied by laser Raman spectroscopy to elucidate further the structure-function relationship to the neurotoxin. Spectra were obtained from the powder, aqueous solution, and deuterated derivatives of each toxin. The peptide backbone conformation of these neurotoxins was found to be of "anti-parallel beta configuration," as distinct amide I and III bands appeared at 1672 and 1240 cm-1, respectively. No indication of alpha helical structure in the neurotoxins was observed from amide I and III bands. This was further confirmed by the spectra of the neurotoxins after deuterium exchange. The peaks due to a single tyrosine residue appeared at 644, 834, and 846 cm-1. The intensity ratios of the toxin from L. hardwickii venom were 0.92, 1.0, and 0.84 at 644, 834, and 846 cm-1. It is concluded that the tyrosine residue is involved in some unusual intramolecular interactions and not readily accessible to water molecules. Similar results were obtained for the toxin of Enhydrina schistosa (common sea snake). The fact that only 50% of the tyrosine molecule is modified by nitration is in complete agreement with laser Raman result. The lack of a sharp Raman line at 1361 cm-1 suggested that the single tryptophan residue may be "exposed." The previous demonstration that the tryptophan residue can be modified readily with different reagents confirms these results. A relatively symmetrical disulfide peak at 512 cm-1 indicates that the geometry of the C-C-S-S-C-C linkage is nearly identical for all four disulfide bonds in the molecule. The absence of phenylalanine was established by the lack of a phenylalanine peak in the laser Raman spectra and by amino acid analysis.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed2003

[Aggravation of snake bite in France and their treatment].

VIPERS AT THE ORIGIN OF ENVENOMING: Out of the 4 species of vipers found in France, only two can be responsible for severe envenoming: the aspic viper (Vipera aspis) and the addetr (Vipera berus). CLINICAL GRADING: Since 1992, a grading table published by the Institut Pasteur in Paris helps to assess the severity of the clinical and biological picture. A grade 2 (extensive oedema +/- accompanied by moderate general signs) or notably a grade 3 (giant oedema + severe general signs + biological signs) implies the administration of an antivenom. ANTIVENOM VIPERFAV: Available on the market since 2000, is administered in intravenous infusion, the only route effective. Tolerance to the treatment is good and clinical improvement is rapid after administration of 1 to 4 infusions of antivenom. When confronted with life-threatening envenoming, there is no strong argument to justify the non-use of an antivenom. VIPERINE ENVENOMING: Among the grass snakes, the viperine snake of Montpellier is the only species that is actually venomous. The fangs are posterior in the buccal cavity of the snake, which does not usually permit it to inject its venom in humans. In exceptional circumstances (finger placed in the throat), envenoming has been observed with, in this case, essentially neurological clinical signs: involvement of the cranial nerves, drowsiness. There is no specific treatment for these extremely rare accidents.

Antivenins↗
PubMed2001

Snake bite in Nigeria.

Four families of venomous snakes are found in Nigeria--Viperidae, Elapidae, Colubridae and Actraspididae but three species carpet viper (Echis ocellatus), black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) and puff adder (Bitis arietans), belonging to the first two families, are the most important snakes associated with envenoming in Nigeria. The incidence of bites has been reported as 497 per 100,000 population per year with a 12 percent natural mortality, with Echis ocellatus accounting for at least 66 percent in certain foci. Bites occur more often while victims were farming, herding or walking although the spitting cobra may bite victims who roll upon it in their sleep. Carpet viper venom contains a prothrombin activating procoagulant, haemorrhagin and cytolytic fractions which cause haemorrhage, incoagulable blood, shock and local reactions/ necrosis. The spitting cobra bite manifests with local tissue reaction and occassionally with bleeding from the site of bite, but no classic neurotoxic feature has been observed except following Egyptian cobra (N. haje) bites. Cardiotoxicity and renal failure may occassionally occur following bites by the carpet viper and the puff adder. In the laboratory, haematological and other features are noted and immunodiagnosis has a role in species identification. Immobilisation of the bitten limb is probably the single most important first aid measure. Antivenom should be used cautiously when indicated. As only 8.5 percent of snake bite victims attend hospitals in Nigeria, health education should be the main preventive measure, mean-while, the study of immunisation of occupationally predisposed individuals in endemic areas should be intensified. A new Fab fragment antivenom specific to Nigerian Echis ocellatus was investigated clinically, just as the local herbs-Aristolochia spp, Guiera spp and Schummaniophyton spp are investigated experimentally.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

[The organ topography of nonpoisonous snakes of the Boidae (boas and pythons) and Colubridae (adders) families].

In order to assist veterinarians with the diagnosis of diseases in snakes, the organ topography of 142 dissected snakes of 35 different species was analysed and examined in relation to body size and normal biotope. Apart from characteristic species specific differences, it was shown that there is a clear difference between arboreal and terrestrial snakes. It was recorded that nearly in all species the organs shifted along the body in relation to increase in growth.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Effects of snake venom from Saudi cobras and vipers on hormonal levels in peripheral blood.

OBJECTIVE: Knowledge about the effects of snake venoms on endocrine glands in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is meager. The aim of the present study is to investigate the acute and chronic envenomation from 4 snakes out of 8 species of Saudi Cobras and Vipers on the tissues of endocrine glands and peripheral hormonal levels in male rats. METHODS: The peripheral blood levels of 4 hormones mainly testosterone, cortisol, insulin and thyroxin were investigated in male Wistar rats following acute and chronic treatment of the rats with poisonous snake venoms at the Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between September 2000 to May 2001. RESULTS: Using radio immunoassay for hormonal analysis, a rise in testosterone levels in peripheral blood was obtained following acute treatment, which is due to the effect of the venoms on vascular permeability and increased blood flow. In contrast, the chronic treatment with venoms resulted in a delayed effect on vascular permeability and testicular degeneration resulting in a decreased blood flow and a significant drop in testosterone concentration. Cortisol levels were no different from the controls during acute treatment but it demonstrates gradual rise following chronic treatment to withstand the stress imposed on the animals. Similar results were obtained for insulin, which showed normal values with acute treatment but decreased levels of chronic treatment suggesting insulin insufficiently. Likewise, the thyroxin levels were decreased with chronic treatment suggesting a toxic effect of the poison on the rich blood supply of the thyroid follicles with a subsequent decrease in blood flow to the tissues and therefore, decreased thyroid hormone levels. CONCLUSION: The effects of venom toxicity on testosterone levels were either normal or stimulatory with acute treatment or inhibitory with chronic treatment depending on the vascular blood flow and testicular degeneration. Cortisol levels were normal at acute treatment but showed a gradual rise reflecting the stress imposed on the animals. The rise in cortisol levels was visualized to potentiate the cardiovascular and metabolic changes. The effects on insulin and thyroxin were similar to those of testosterone level showing normal or stimulatory effect with acute treatment followed by decreased levels of hormones with chronic treatment.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Toxicity of venoms from snakes of medical importance in México].

The characterization of the toxic activities of snake venoms is necessary to understand the physiopathology of the envenomation and to test the potency of the antivenoms used to treat this pathology. Because of the lack of data on the toxic activities of venoms from Mexican snakes of medical importance, we studied the venoms from Bothrops asper, Athropoides nummifrr, Agkistrodon billineatus, Crotalus durissus durissus, Crotalus basiliscus, Crotalus scutulatus, Crotalus atrox and Micrurus nigrocinctus. The studies performed were: SDS-PAOE, determination of lethal potency, hemorrhagic, necrotizing, coagulation on plasma and fibrinogen, phospholipasic and fibri(noge)nolytic activities. In addition we studied the neutralizing capacity of the toxic activities of an antivenom currently used for the treatment of snakebites in Mexico. The venom from viperids showed important hemorrhagic, necrotizing, coagulative on plasma, prothrombinic, fibrinogenolytic and phospholipase activities. The venoms with the highest lethal potency were those of Micrurus nigrocinctus and Crotalus scutulatus; however, the viperine venom that globally displayed the most potent toxic activities was from Bothrops asper. All the venoms showed toxic activities of similar range to those described for other American venomous snakes. The activity on plasma or fibrinogen varied widely among the different venoms but all displayed capacity to act on the coagulation system. The antivenom tested not only neutralized the lethality B. asper venom but also its other toxic activities.

Animals↗