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PubMed1987

The time it takes to make judgments of velocity.

Reaction times were measured in an absolute judgment experiment involving either the location of a point on a screen, or the direction of a moving point, or its velocity. Stimuli were chosen to be almost perfectly detectable and discriminable when presented pairwise to avoid confusions at the sensory coding level. Typical results associated with absolute judgment tasks were observed, as to the amount of information transmission and anchoring effects. More in particular, latencies appear to be a direct function of the number N of alternatives. For N constant, responses are much slower for velocity than for both location and direction. This difference itself is a direct function of N, and, presumably, drops to zero for N = 1, i.e., when stimulus uncertainty vanishes. These observations support the idea that the difference should not be attributed to some velocity-specific integration of space and time but to some performance decision strategies in evaluation of magnitude.

Humans↗
PubMed1995

Redundant leading and following zeros in comparative numerical judgment.

The objective was to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how people make numerical comparative judgments when digits are contained in numbers with redundant leading or following zeros, e.g., 00080 and 800.000. These sequences of numbers often appear on computer display terminals (VDT) as line numbers, but surprisingly little research has been done on this. The experiment manipulated three aspects of numerical stimuli: (1) redundant leading zeros, (2) redundant following zeros, and (3) length of string of digits. The subjects were to push one of the two button-switches to respond whether two stimulus numbers shown on the computer screen were equal or unequal. The target stimuli contained several forms of redundant zeros, and each performance was assessed by response RT of the subjects. Analysis indicated five significant findings: (1) Redundant leading zeros hindered performance, (2) The effect of redundant following zeros depended on the stimulus type, (3) Over-all, longer digits took more processing time, (4) The RTs for the second-block trials were significantly faster than the first, and (5) Task performance was facilitated when the redundant zero representations were identical in both stimuli of a pair. Nonlexicographic processing seems to occur when feature identification can be used for numerical identification, that is, when the format is consistent. The research has implications for those in computer science to provide numerical formats which make comparative judgments as easy as possible.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

A new method for examining the judgment of bigness.

80 children (40 three-yr.-olds, 23 boys and 17 girls, and 40 five-yr.-olds, 22 boys and 18 girls) were presented pairs of quadrangles (square vs rectangle) and triangles (two isosceles triangles) and asked to select the bigger one. The pairs were varied on the area ratio of paired stimuli and magnitude in differences between height and width. Although 3-yr.-olds tended to rely on area in making their judgments and also occasionally relied on height, almost all 5-yr.-olds relied on height. These results were discussed in relation to the tasks used in the previous studies, the basis in judgment of bigness, and the Japanese word for "big."

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1999

Time judgments as a function of clock duration: effects of temporal paradigm and an attention-demanding nontemporal task.

Participants estimated the duration of one of four intervals (12.5, 25, 37.5, 50 sec.). They performed an attention-demanding nontemporal task (the 'Stroop' task) during the interval's presentation. Half of the participants in each group were told of the time judgment task prior to the interval's presentation (prospective paradigm), and the other half after its presentation (retrospective paradigm). Both prospective and retrospective time judgments substantially underestimated the durations of intervals, and there was no significant effect of temporal paradigm. The results are discussed in relation to the attentional models of timing.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Judgments of grammaticality of sentences violating the principle of full interpretation: a further exploration.

54 Japanese speakers judged isolated simple bitransitive sentences involving an unnecessary extra argument in addition to three legitimate arguments. Two variables were manipulated, with one variable concerning the role the extra argument assumed in a sentence, subjective, dative, or objective and the other concerning the relation it bore with the legitimate argument. The sentences with the extra arguments were judged to be an average grammaticality of about 3 on a 7-point scale. This score, although still lower than that obtained for sentences involving only the legitimate arguments, suggests that speakers' judgments are not fully consistent with the judgments expected if they might possess and demonstrate the knowledge of the principle of Full Interpretation.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Children's social competence, academic competence, and aggressiveness as related to ability to make judgments of fairness.

The relationship of 102 fifth and sixth graders' judgments of fairness with their academic and social competence and aggressiveness was studied. Children were given self-report and peer-nomination inventories measuring academic competence, social competence, and aggressiveness at a single point in time at the public school they attended. These measures were related to children's prediction of fairness on a distributive justice measure. Children who saw themselves as academically and socially competent scored higher on the distributive justice measure. Children whose peers saw them as less academically competent and more aggressive scored lower on the distributive justice measure. Analyses showed an association between children's academic competence, social competence, and aggressiveness scores and their scores on judgments of fairness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Reasoning about interpersonal responsibility when making judgments about scenarios depicting close personal relationships.

This study examined the moral reasoning of 36 young adults (M age = 20.8 yr., evenly divided by sex) about situations involving close interpersonal relationships: best friends, spouses, and parents or children. Participants were presented stories in which personal needs and desires were in conflict with interpersonal concerns. When asked how the conflicts should be resolved, the large majority of participants judged that personal desires should be subordinated to interpersonal concerns, justifying their judgments with reference to concern for others, relationship maintenance, or relationship responsibilities. No sex differences in judgments or justifications were found. In addition, most judged that the act of meeting another's needs in a close relationship was an obligatory responsibility and that such responsibilities generalized to people living in other societies. Thus, participants considered interpersonal responsibilities to be moral obligations that apply across cultural boundaries and did not consider them to be matters of personal choice.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Optimistic bias and pessimistic realism in judgments of contingency with aversive or rewarding outcomes.

A depressive personality influences judgments of contingency. This is called "depressive realism." The present experiment examined whether optimistic traits, as measured by various scales, are correlated with judgments of contingency. The valences of the target stimuli were aversive or rewarding (noise avoidance or gaining points). Analysis indicated that the optimistic subjects (as measured by explanatory style for negative events) tend to overestimate noncontingent events; however, optimism measured by other scales did not show such an effect. The findings are discussed in terms of a self-defensive attributional bias.

Affect↗
PubMed2002

Moral judgment and drivers' behavior among Brazilian students.

It is well known that lifestyle, social deviance, and criminal background are related to involvement in road accidents. This study addressed the connection between moral judgment and driving behavior, especially deliberate violations of the traffic law. 260 university students (age 18-30 years, 41% women) completed the Sociomoral Reflection Measure and Driver Behavior Questionnaire. No significant associations were found, probably due to the small variance in Moral Judgment score in this selected sample. This study presented a Portuguese 28-item version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire that reproduced the same four-factor structure as the British version: ordinary violations, aggressive violations, errors, and lapses.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2004

Relation of value epistemological beliefs scale and judgments of two similar scenarios attributed to two different authorities.

Authority, in learning situations, has been widely defined as the role of teacher, or parents, ignoring the person by whom knowledge is delivered. This research was carried out to examine the influence of this type of authority on the relations between students' beliefs and their judgments of content. 160 Iranian college students were randomly divided into two equal groups. Then, both groups were assessed for their beliefs about sources of values. In the next step, two scenarios of the same content were distributed to the two groups; one scenario was attributed to a highly respected religious person in Islam and another to a famous nonreligious psychoanalyst. College students then were asked to judge the ideas proposed in the content. Analysis showed that the relations between students' beliefs and their judgments were different for the two groups. Pending confirmation by further study, some educational recommendations may be offered.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Some problems in use of the moral judgment test.

The Moral Judgment Test has been widely used in evaluation of moral development; however, it presents some problems related to the trait measured, reliability, and validity of its summary score (C-index). This index reflects consistency in moral judgment, but this construct is different from moral development as stated by Kohlberg. Therefore, users interested in the latter evaluation should refer to other indexes derived from the test. Some of the analyzed problems could be partially corrected with more theory and research on moral consistency as a component of moral competence.

Humans↗
PubMed1999

Impairments in judgment of chimeric faces by schizophrenic and affective patients.

The hypothesis that schizophrenic and affective patients have differential impairments in judgment of facial emotional expressions was tested on 55 right-handed patients: 15 in each of two groups of schizophrenic patients, with positive and negative symptoms; and 10 in each of two groups of bipolar affective patients, in manic and depressive states. In addition, 37 normal control subjects were also tested. The subjects were presented with eight schematic drawings of chimeric faces (each depicting a positive emotion in a given hemiface, and a negative emotion in the other hemiface), as well as with two drawings of composite faces (each depicting either a positive or a negative emotion). Subjects judged the emotions depicted by the facial expressions, as well as their intensity. The data, analyzed by analyses of variance, showed that normals judged the chimeric expressions on the basis of the emotions depicted by the left hemifaces. This tendency was weaker among the psychiatric patients. Schizophrenics with negative symptoms judged positive expressions in the left hemifaces as depicting negative emotions, and negative expressions as depicting positive emotions. Schizophrenics with positive symptoms and manic patients judged all expressions as depicting positive emotions. Depressive patients showed a stronger tendency to judge negative expressions as depicting negative emotions than positive expressions as depicting positive emotions. No significant group differences appeared in judgment of composite faces (except for schizophrenic with negative symptoms who were more accurate in judging positive than negative expressions). Patients performances were interpreted in terms of differential dysfunctions in posterior areas of the right cerebral hemisphere which might be associated with bilateral effects of dysfunctions in anterior cerebral areas.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

A posteriori information effects on culpability judgments from a cross-cultural perspective.

A posteriori information about the moral attributes of the victim of a crime can affect an observer's judgment on the culpability of the actor of the crime so that negative moral attributes of the victim will lead to a lower judgment of culpability. The authors found this effect of a posteriori information among 118 American and 123 Chinese participants, but the underlying mechanisms were different between the two cultural groups. The Americans considered the psychological state of the actor during the crime, whereas the Chinese considered the morality of the actor during the crime. The authors discussed these results in light of the respondents' implicit theories of morality.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Transfer of control between causal predictive judgments and instrumental responding.

Four experiments were conducted to explore outcome-specific transfer from causal predictive judgments to instrumental responding. A video game was designed in which participants had to defend Andalusia from navy and air force attacks. First, they learned the relationship between two instrumental responses (two key on a standard keyboard) and two different outcomes (destruction of the ships or destruction of the planes). Then they learned to predict which of two different stimuli predicted which outcome. Finally, they had the opportunity of making either of the two instrumental responses in the presence of either stimulus. Transfer was shown as a preference for the response that shared an outcome with the current stimulus. The presentation of the stimulus during the test produced a decrease in the overall rate of response. Responding to a neutral stimulus in Experiments 2 and 3 suggested that this overall decrease in responding was due to a combination of the time needed to process the meaning of the stimulus and the activation of the representation of the outcome in the presence of the stimulus during the test. Transfer between predictive judgments and instrumental responding mirrors the outcome-specific Pavlovian instrumental transfer observed in conditioning studies with rats.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Trial order and retention interval in human predictive judgment.

The influences of order of trial type and retention interval on human predictive judgments were assessed for a cue that was reinforced on half of its training presentations. Subjects observed 10 cue-outcome presentations (i.e., reinforced trials) and 10 cue-alone presentations (i.e., nonreinforced trials) in one of three different orders: all nonreinforced trials followed by all reinforced trials(latent inhibition), reinforced and nonreinforced trials interspersed (partial reinforcement), or al lreinforced trials followed by all nonreinforced trials (extinction). Ratings were based mainly on the most recent event type (i.e., a recency effect) when the test occurred immediately after training but were based mainly on initial event types (i.e., a primacy effect) when the test occurred after a 48-h delay. The subjects tested both immediately and with a long retention interval did not exhibit this shift to primacy (i.e., the recency effect persisted). These results demonstrate noncatastrophic forgetting and the flexible use of trial order information in predictive judgments.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

How temporal assumptions influence causal judgments.

Causal learning typically entails the problem of being confronted with a large number of potentially relevant statistical relations. One type of constraint that may guide the choice of appropriate statistical indicators of causality are assumptions about temporal delays between causes and effects. There have been a few previous studies in which the role of temporal relations in the learning of events that are experienced in real time have been investigated. However, human causal reasoning may also be based on verbally described events, rather than on direct experiences of the events to which the descriptions refer. The aim of this paper is to investigate whether assumptions about the temporal characteristics of the events that are being described also affect causal judgment. Three experiments are presented that demonstrate that different temporal assumptions about causal delays may lead to dramatically different causal judgments, despite identical leaning inputs. In particular, the experiments show that temporal assumptions guide the choice of appropriate statistical indicators of causality by structuring the event stream (Experiment 1), by selecting the potential causes among a set of competing candidates (Experiment 2), and by influencing the level of aggregation of events (Experiment 3).

Humans↗
PubMed2003

An application of a dynamic model of judgment to magnitude production.

A dynamic model of judgment, together with a model of stimulus context effects, is applied to magnitude production (MP) and magnitude estimation (ME) experiments. Participants' responses in MP were correlated across trials, as is typically found for ME. The magnitudeof the autocorrelation, however, was small, which suggests that participants in MP tend to rely more heavily on a long-term frame of reference. Second, a stimulus context effect found for ME did not appear for MP, most likely because of the different nature of the task (i.e., intermediate values of the stimulus were heard while the participant produced a response). A fit of an earlier regression model, on the other hand, suggests that the number presented on the previous trial in MP has a large contrastive effect on the current response. The present model offers a different view of this result, in that it shows that a negative coefficient for the earlier model is consistent with a positive judgmental effect. The regression effect noted by Stevens and Greenbaum (1966), which is a value of the estimated ME exponent that is smaller than the inverse of the estimated MP exponent, was also found; it i s shown that the effect did not arise from bias in estimation.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

Multisensory temporal order judgments: when two locations are better than one.

In Experiment 1, participants were presented with pairs of stimuli (one visual and the other tactile) from the left and/or right of fixation at varying stimulus onset asynchronies and were required to make unspeeded temporal order judgments (TOJs) regarding which modality was presented first. When the participants adopted an uncrossed-hands posture, just noticeable differences (JNDs) were lower (i.e., multisensory TOJs were more precise) when stimuli were presented from different positions, rather than from the same position. This spatial redundancy benefit was reduced when the participants adopted a crossed-hands posture, suggesting a failure to remap visuotactile space appropriately. In Experiment 2, JNDs were also lower when pairs of auditory and visual stimuli were presented from different positions, rather than from the same position. Taken together, these results demonstrate that people can use redundant spatial cues to facilitate their performance on multisensory TOJ tasks and suggest that previous studies may have systematically overestimated the precision with which people can make such judgments. These results highlight the intimate link between spatial and temporal factors in determining our perception of the multimodal objects and events in the world around us.

Adult↗