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At least 811 records · Page 45Linked to original sources
PubMed1992

Formation of prostacyclin during administration of beta 1-selective and non-selective beta-adrenergic antagonists in healthy humans.

Vascular formation of prostacyclin is increased by propranolol in patients with essential hypertension. However, the possible effect of beta-adrenoceptor blocking drugs in healthy subjects is, however, not known. We studied this issue by analysis of the urinary excretion of the prostacyclin metabolite, 2,3-dinor-6-keto-prostaglandin F1a during intake of a beta 1-selective (metoprolol) or a non-selective (propranolol) beta-adrenoceptor antagonist. After 14 days of metoprolol treatment (100 mg d-1) the urinary excretion of PGI-M did not differ from control (253 +/- 77 vs. 220 +/- 33 pg mg-1 creatinine, respectively). Five days of randomized cross-over treatment with propranolol (80 mg day-1) or placebo did not affect urinary PGI-M significantly either (177 +/- 11 vs. 202 +/- 11 pg mg-1 creatinine, respectively). Furthermore, a daily increasing dose of propranolol (80-480 mg) progressively lowered resting blood pressure and heart rate, but failed to influence urinary excretion of PGI-M. The data demonstrate that metoprolol and propranolol do not affect basal cardiovascular formation of prostacyclin in healthy subjects. Thus, the biosynthesis of prostacyclin does not appear to be regulated by beta-adrenoceptor activity under normal conditions.

6-Ketoprostaglandin F1 alpha↗
PubMed1983

Behavioural hyperactivity in rats treated with selective monoamine oxidase inhibitors and LM 5008, a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine uptake blocker.

The administration of 4-[2-(3-indolyl)ethyl]piperidine (LM 5008), a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) uptake blocker to rats pretreated with tranylcypromine (Tcp) resulted in a behavioural syndrome of locomotor hyperactivity which is indistinguishable from that following combined treatment with Tcp and L-tryptophan. A similar behavioural response was elicited by the administration of LM 5008 to rats pretreated with 5-hydroxytryptophan. The response to LM 5008 after monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition was abolished by pretreatment with p-chlorophenylalanine, indicating the involvement of 5-HT in producing the hyperactivity syndrome. The administration of imipramine and chlorimipramine in combination with Tcp also resulted in hyperactivity, but these drugs were much less potent than LM 5008 in producing the syndrome. In contrast to L-tryptophan, which can produce hyperactivity only after the inhibition of both type A and type B MAO, LM 5008 can elicit the syndrome after selective inhibition of MAO type A only but not after inhibition of MAO type B. The behavioural results indicate that when MAO type A is inhibited, LM 5008 treatment elicits hyperactivity by preventing the availability of 5-HT to be metabolized by MAO-B component.

5-Hydroxytryptophan↗
PubMed1994

Pharmacological actions of the selective and non-selective beta-adrenoceptor antagonists celiprolol, bisoprolol and propranolol on human bronchi.

1. The pharmacological actions of the beta-adrenoceptor antagonists, celiprolol, bisoprolol and propranolol were investigated in human lung tissue by radioligand binding experiments as well as in human isolated bronchi by functional experiments in organ baths. 2. Data from lung tissue were compared to those obtained from myocardial membranes. 3. Lung tissue was obtained from 10 patients having undergone lung resection for bronchial carcinoma and myocardial tissue from a patient who had received a heart transplantation. 4. In radioligand binding experiments, celiprolol exhibited a high affinity binding to beta 1-adrenoceptors in heart and a low affinity binding to beta 2-adrenoceptors in lung tissue. The selectivity obtained for the beta 1-adrenoceptor was calculated to a factor of eleven. 5. Compared to bisoprolol and propranolol, celiprolol elicited the lowest affinity for the beta-adrenoceptor, as judged from the K1-values. 6. In the absence and presence of the guanine nucleotide Gpp(NH)p celiprolol did not affect receptor binding. 7. In functional experiments on intact bronchi, celiprolol, bisoprolol and propranolol failed to produce relaxation (+/- forskolin) or a significant difference in efficacy in antagonizing the relaxant effects of isoprenaline. However, a rank order of potencies was revealed (propranolol:bisoprolol:celiprolol = 46:12:1). 8. Plasma concentrations for celiprolol and bisoprolol usually achieved in vivo were below the IC50 value obtained in vitro. In contrast, for propranolol, plasma concentrations were nearly identical with the IC50 value. 9. It is concluded that celiprolol is a selective beta 1-adrenoceptor antagonist on human heart and has no agonistic properties on intact human bronchi. Compounds such as celiprolol and bisoprolol may in comparison to propranolol, possess reasonable therapeutic advantages in the treatment of patients with obstructive lung disease due to their low affinity for beta 2-adrenoceptors.

Adrenergic beta-1 Receptor Antagonists↗
PubMed1999

Affinity-driven peptide selection of an NFAT inhibitor more selective than cyclosporin A.

The flow of information from calcium-mobilizing receptors to nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)-dependent genes is critically dependent on interaction between the phosphatase calcineurin and the transcription factor NFAT. A high-affinity calcineurin-binding peptide was selected from combinatorial peptide libraries based on the calcineurin docking motif of NFAT. This peptide potently inhibited NFAT activation and NFAT-dependent expression of endogenous cytokine genes in T cells, without affecting the expression of other cytokines that require calcineurin but not NFAT. Substitution of the optimized peptide sequence into the natural calcineurin docking site increased the calcineurin responsiveness of NFAT. Compounds that interfere selectively with the calcineurin-NFAT interaction without affecting calcineurin phosphatase activity may be useful as therapeutic agents that are less toxic than current drugs.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

The anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus quinolone WCK 771 has potent activity against sequentially selected mutants, has a narrow mutant selection window against quinolone-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and preferentially targets DNA gyrase.

WCK 771 is a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone with enhanced activity against quinolone-resistant staphylococci. To understand the impact of the target-level interactions of WCK 771 on its antistaphylococcal pharmacodynamic properties, we determined the MICs for genetically defined mutants and studied the mutant prevention concentrations (MPCs), the frequency of mutation, and the cidality against the wild type and double mutants. There was a twofold increase in the MICs of WCK 771 for single gyrA mutants, indicating that DNA gyrase is its primary target. All first- and second-step mutants selected by WCK 771 revealed gyrA and grlA mutations, respectively. The MICs of WCK 771 and clinafloxacin were found to be superior to those of other quinolones against strains with double and triple mutations. WCK 771 was also cidal for high-density double mutants at low concentrations. WCK 771 and clinafloxacin showed narrow mutant selection windows compared to those of the other quinolones. Against a panel of 50 high-level quinolone-resistant clinical isolates of staphylococci (ciprofloxacin MIC > or = 16 microg/ml), the WCK 771 MPCs were < or =2 microg/ml for 68% of the strains and < or =4 microg/ml for 28% of the strains. Our results demonstrate that gyrA is the primary target of WCK 771 and that it has pharmacodynamic properties remarkably different from those of quinolones with dual targets (garenoxacin and moxifloxacin) and topoisomerase IV-specific quinolones (trovafloxacin). WCK 771 displayed an activity profile comparable to that of clinafloxacin, a dual-acting quinolone with a high affinity to DNA gyrase. Overall, the findings signify the key role of DNA gyrase in determining the optimal antistaphylococcal features of quinolones.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed2005

Rapid detection of subtype-selective nuclear hormone receptor binding with bacterial genetic selection.

Subtype-selective nuclear hormone receptor modulators could potentially allow the development of valuable tissue-specific therapeutics. A simple biosensor that allows subtype-specific nuclear hormone receptor binding to be reflected by the growth phenotype of Escherichia coli cells has been constructed. This system will potentially enable the facile detection or evolution of subtype-selective hormone analogues.

Bacterial Adhesion↗
PubMed2004

Amino acid substitutions in putative selectivity filter regions III and IV in KdpA alter ion selectivity of the KdpFABC complex from Escherichia coli.

When grown under conditions of potassium limitation or high osmolality, Escherichia coli synthesizes the K(+)-translocating KdpFABC complex. The KdpA subunit, which has sequence homology to potassium channels of the KcsA type, has been shown to be important for potassium binding and transport. Replacement of the glycine residues in KdpA at positions 345 and 470, members of putative selectivity filter regions III and IV, alters the ion selectivity of the KdpFABC complex.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗
PubMed1999

Decreased processivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase (RT) containing didanosine-selected mutation Leu74Val: a comparative analysis of RT variants Leu74Val and lamivudine-selected Met184Val.

We previously showed that a didanosine-selected mutation in pNL4-3 background conferred a replication disadvantage on human immunodeficiency virus type 1, resulting in a loss of replication fitness. This work has been extended by showing that a recombinant virus with the HXBc2 backbone and reverse transcriptase (RT) fragments from pNL4-3 containing the Leu74Val mutation produce decreasing amounts of p24 antigen over a 3-week period. The HXBc2 recombinant containing the wild-type RT from pNL4-3 replicated efficiently. When the virion-associated RT containing the Leu74Val mutation was used in an RT processivity assay with homopolymer RNA template-primer, poly(A), and oligo(dT), the RT with altered Leu74Val mutation was less processive, generating fewer cDNA products in comparison to wild-type pNL4-3 RT. The replication kinetics and RT processivity of the mutant with the Leu74Val mutation were compared to those of a lamivudine-selected mutant Met184Val. In replication kinetics assays, mutant Leu74Val replicated slower than the mutant Met184Val. In a processivity assay, the mutant RTs from both viruses show comparable decreases in processivity. These observations provide biochemical evidence of decreased processivity to support the decrease in replication fitness observed with the Leu74Val or Met184Val mutations.

HIV Reverse Transcriptase↗
PubMed1985

Neomycin resistance as a dominant selectable marker for selection and isolation of vaccinia virus recombinants.

The antibiotic G418 was shown to be an effective inhibitor of vaccinia virus replication when an appropriate concentration of it was added to cell monolayers 48 h before infection. Genetic engineering techniques were used in concert with DNA transfection protocols to construct vaccinia virus recombinants containing the neomycin resistance gene (neo) from transposon Tn5. These recombinants contained the neo gene linked in either the correct or incorrect orientation relative to the vaccinia virus 7.5-kilodalton gene promoter which is expressed constitutively throughout the course of infection. The vaccinia virus recombinant containing the chimeric neo gene in the proper orientation was able to grow and form plaques in the presence of G418, whereas both the wild-type and the recombinant virus with the neo gene in the opposite polarity were inhibited by more than 98%. The effect of G418 on virus growth may be mediated at least in part by selective inhibition of the synthesis of a subset of late viral proteins. These results are discussed with reference to using this system, the conferral of resistance to G418 with neo as a positive selectable marker, to facilitate constructing vaccinia virus recombinants which contain foreign genes of interest.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Effect of selective and non-selective beta blockade on pulmonary function and tracheobronchial mucociliary clearance in healthy subjects.

A controlled, double blind, crossover study was carried out to ascertain the effect of single doses of selective (100 mg atenolol) and non-selective (160 mg propranolol) beta blocker on pulmonary function and tracheobronchial mucociliary clearance. The study group comprised 12 healthy, young subjects. Adequate and comparable blockade was achieved with both drugs, the administration of which resulted in significantly lower pulse rates (at least up to eight hours after administration of the drug) and systolic blood pressures (three hours after drug administration) than were found with placebo. Small (of the order of 5%) but nevertheless statistically significant falls in FEV1 and forced vital capacity accompanied the administration of both beta blockers (but not the placebo) and were measurable up to eight hours after administration of the drug. Indices of pulmonary function had returned to normal by the next day. Peak expiratory flow and indices of small airways function remained unaltered after beta blockade. Mean tracheobronchial mucociliary clearance was depressed after administration of both beta blocking drugs, although the reduction was significant (p less than 0.05) only when propranolol was compared with placebo.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Selected contribution: skeletal muscle capillarity and enzyme activity in rats selectively bred for running endurance.

To attempt to explain the difference in intrinsic (untrained) endurance running capacity in rats selectively bred over seven generations for either low (LCR) or high running capacity (HCR), the relationship among skeletal muscle capillarity, fiber composition, enzyme activity, and O(2) transport was studied. Ten females from each group [body wt: 228 g (HCR), 247 g (LCR); P = 0.03] were studied at 25 wk of age. Peak normoxic maximum O(2) consumption and muscle O(2) conductance were previously reported to be 12 and 33% higher, respectively, in HCR, despite similar ventilation, arterial O(2) saturation, and a cardiac output that was <10% greater in HCR compared with LCR. Total capillary and fiber number in the medial gastrocnemius were similar in HCR and LCR, but, because fiber area was 37% lower in HCR, the number of capillaries per unit area (or mass) of muscle was higher in HCR by 32% (P < 0.001). A positive correlation (r = 0.92) was seen between capillary density and muscle O(2) conductance. Skeletal muscle enzymes citrate synthase and beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase were both approximately 40% higher (P < 0.001) in HCR (12.4 +/- 0.7 vs. 8.7 +/- 0.4 and 3.4 +/- 0.2 vs. 2.4 +/- 0.2 mmol. kg(-1). min(-1), respectively), whereas phosphofructokinase was significantly (P = 0.02) lower in HCR (27.8 +/- 1.2 vs. 35.2 +/- 2.5 mmol. kg(-1). min(-1)) and hexokinase was the same (0.65 +/- 0.04 vs. 0.65 +/- 0.03 mmol. kg(-1). min(-1)). Resting muscle ATP, phosphocreatine, and glycogen contents were not different between groups. Taken together, these data suggest that, in rats selectively bred for high-endurance exercise capacity, most of the adaptations for improved O(2) utilization occur peripherally in the skeletal muscles and not in differences at the level of the heart or lung.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of intravenous administration of FR122047 (a selective cyclooxygenase 1 inhibitor) and FR188582 (a selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor) on prostaglandin-E2-induced aqueous flare elevation in pigmented rabbits.

PURPOSE: Two isoforms of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) exist. To determine in vivo effects of the intravenous administration of FR122047 (a selective COX-1 inhibitor), FR188582 (a selective COX-2 inhibitor), diclofenac sodium or dexamethasone phosphate disodium on prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2)-induced aqueous flare elevation and mRNA levels for COX-1 and COX-2 in pigmented rabbits. METHODS: To produce aqueous flare elevation in rabbits, PGE2, 25 microg/ml, was applied to the cornea with the use of a glass cylinder. FR122047, FR188582, diclofenac sodium or dexamethasone phosphate disodium was intravenously injected before PGE2 application. Aqueous flare was measured with a laser flare-cell meter. The mRNA levels for COX-1 and COX-2 in the iris-ciliary body were determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: FR122047, FR188582 and diclofenac sodium (15 micromol/kg each) injected intravenously 30 min before PGE2 application inhibited 29 +/- 5, 40 +/- 12 and 50 +/- 9% of aqueous flare elevation, respectively. Simultaneous injection of FR122047 (15 micromol/kg) and FR188582 (15 micromol/kg) 30 min before PGE2 application inhibited 61 +/- 8% of flare elevation. Dexamethasone phosphate disodium (15 micromol/kg) injected intravenously 300 min before PGE2 application inhibited 68 +/- 8% of aqueous flare elevation. Less than 3-fold changes in mRNA levels for COX-1 and COX-2 in the iris-ciliary body were noted after PGE2, FR122047, FR188582, diclofenac sodium or dexamethasone phosphate disodium treatment. CONCLUSION: It is possible that enzyme activities of both COX-1 and COX-2 may be involved in the mechanism of PGE2-induced aqueous flare elevation in pigmented rabbits.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Initiation of atherosclerotic lesions in cholesterol-fed rabbits. II. Selective retention of LDL vs. selective increases in LDL permeability in susceptible sites of arteries.

We asked if the arterial sites most prone to early lesions in cholesterol-fed rabbits have higher permeabilities to low density lipoprotein (LDL) in normolipidemic rabbits or if these sites become more permeable shortly after the onset of cholesterol feeding. We also considered whether the focal increases in the concentration of LDL within the arterial wall in lesion-susceptible sites before fatty streak formation can be explained by increased arterial permeability to LDL or by other mechanisms such as decreased rates of LDL efflux or degradation. 125I-tyramine cellobiose-labeled LDL was injected 1 hour before death to determine the initial rate of LDL entry into lesion-prone and lesion-resistant sites of aorta as a measure of permeability. This was studied in normal rabbits and in rabbits fed cholesterol for 4, 8, or 16 days. Combining this permeability data with the tracer data described in the accompanying article, we fit a kinetic model to calculate the mass and mean residence time of intact LDL within the artery and the fractional rates of LDL degradation and efflux from the artery. In normal rabbits, the permeability of lesion-susceptible branch sites of the abdominal aorta was about four times that of the lesion-resistant, nonbranched areas. However, the permeability of the aortic arch, a susceptible site, was similar to that of the lesion-resistant descending thoracic aorta. Permeability to LDL did not increase in any aortic site during the 16 days of cholesterol feeding, even in sites with the largest increases in arterial LDL concentrations. Plasma LDL cholesterol concentration increased substantially and total LDL cholesterol delivery into the artery increased many fold. Since there was no differential change in permeability between susceptible and resistant sites, the increased entry of LDL did not explain the selective increases in arterial LDL concentration in susceptible sites. Kinetic analysis indicated that the fractional rate of degradation of the arterial LDL pool was lower in lesion-prone sites than in lesion-resistant sites in all animals. Fractional rates of efflux of arterial LDL decreased in lesion-susceptible branch sites of the abdominal aorta and were low in the lesion-susceptible aortic arch. These results suggest that the focal increases in LDL concentration observed in all lesion-susceptible sites of cholesterol-fed rabbits before fatty streak formation are due to localized differences in LDL retention and diminished fractional rates of LDL degradation, not to selectively increased permeability.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1981

Influence of non-selective and selective beta adrenoceptor blockade on isoxsuprine-dependent hemodynamic and rheologic changes.

The infusion of isoxsuprine was followed by an increase of heart rate and calf blood flow and by a decrease of arterial diastolic pressure and blood viscosity both in normal controls and patients with peripheral obstructive arterial disease. The pre-treatment with a non-selective beta adrenoceptor blocker (propranolol) canceled all the isoxsuprine-dependent changes, while the pre-treatment with a selective beta adrenoceptor blocker (metoprolol) abolished only tachycardia and did not influence the increase of calf blood flow and the decrease of blood viscosity. These findings indicate the different role of vascular beta receptors in the regulation of muscular blood flow and suggest the pharmacologic possibility to unmask the beta2-dependent vasodilation.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Phase I safety, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic trial of ZD1839, a selective oral epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, in patients with five selected solid tumor types.

PURPOSE: To establish the safety and tolerability of ZD1839 (Iressa), a selective epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor, and to explore its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects in patients with selected solid tumor types. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This was a phase I dose-escalating trial of oral ZD1839 150 mg/d to a maximum of 1,000 mg/d given once daily for at least 28 days. Patients with either advanced non-small-cell lung, ovarian, head and neck, prostate, or colorectal cancer were recruited. RESULTS: Eighty-eight patients received ZD1839 (150 to 1,000 mg/d). At 1,000 mg/d, five of 12 patients experienced dose-limiting toxicity (grade 3 diarrhea [four patients] and grade 3 somnolence [one patient]). The most frequent drug-related adverse events (AEs) were acne-like rash (64%) and diarrhea (47%), which were generally mild (grade 1/2) and reversible on cessation of treatment. No change in ZD1839 safety profile was observed with prolonged administration. Pharmacokinetic analysis showed steady-state exposure to ZD1839 in 98% of patients by day 7. Nineteen patients had stable disease and received ZD1839 for >or= 3 months; seven of these patients remained on study drug for >or= 6 months. Serial skin biopsies taken before treatment and at approximately day 28 revealed changes indicative of inhibition of the EGFR signaling pathway. CONCLUSION: ZD1839 was generally well tolerated, with manageable and reversible AEs at doses up to 600 mg/d and dose-limiting toxicity observed at 1,000 mg/d. ZD1839 treatment resulted in clinically meaningful disease stabilization across a range of tumor types and doses. Pharmacodynamic changes in skin confirmed inhibition of EGFR signaling, which was predicted from the mode of action of ZD1839.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2005

Bazedoxifene acetate: a selective estrogen receptor modulator with improved selectivity.

We assessed the preclinical characteristics of a novel, stringently screened selective estrogen receptor modulator, bazedoxifene acetate, including its ability to bind to and activate estrogen receptors and promote increased bone mineral density and bone strength in rats, and the effects impacting the uterine endometrium, breast cancer cell proliferation, and central nervous system-associated vasomotor responses in an animal model. Bazedoxifene bound to estrogen receptor-alpha with an IC50 of 26 nm, an affinity similar to that of raloxifene. Bazedoxifene did not stimulate proliferation of MCF-7 cells but did inhibit 17beta-estradiol-induced proliferation with an IC50 of 0.19 nm. In an immature rat uterine model, bazedoxifene (0.5 and 5.0 mg/kg) was associated with less increase in uterine wet weight than either ethinyl estradiol (10 microg/kg) or raloxifene (0.5 and 5.0 mg/kg). Histological analysis revealed that coadministration of bazedoxifene also appeared to reduce raloxifene-stimulated endometrial luminal epithelial cell and myometrial cell hypertrophy. In ovariectomized rats, bazedoxifene was associated with significant increases in bone mineral density at 6 wk, compared with control, and better compressive strength of bone samples from the L4 vertebrae, compared with samples from ovariectomized animals. In the morphine-addicted rat model of vasomotor activity, bone-sparing doses of bazedoxifene alone were not associated with 17beta-estradiol inhibition of increased vasomotor activity. Bazedoxifene acetate represents a promising new treatment for osteoporosis, with a potential for less uterine and vasomotor effects than selective estrogen receptor modulators currently used in clinical practice. Controlled clinical trial data will be needed to confirm these effects.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Developmental exposure to chlorpyrifos elicits sex-selective alterations of serotonergic synaptic function in adulthood: critical periods and regional selectivity for effects on the serotonin transporter, receptor subtypes, and cell signaling.

During brain development, serotonin (5HT) provides essential neurotrophic signals, and in earlier work, we found that developmental exposure to chlorpyrifos (CPF) elicits short-term changes in 5HT systems. In the present study, we evaluated the effects in adulthood after CPF exposures from the neural tube stage [gestational days (GD) 9-12] and the late gestational period (GD17-20) through postnatal neuronal differentiation and synaptogenesis [postnatal days (PN) 1-4 and 11-14], using treatments below the threshold for systemic toxicity. With exposure on GD9-12, CPF elicited global elevations in 5HT1A and 5HT2 receptors and in the 5HT presynaptic transporter. The GD17-20 treatment elicited larger effects that displayed selectivity for regions with 5HT nerve terminals and that were preferential for males. Although similar receptor up-regulation was seen after PN1-4 exposure, the effects were larger in regions with 5HT cell bodies; in addition, the presynaptic transporter was down-regulated in the nerve terminal zones of females. The PN11-14 exposure had much smaller effects on receptors but still elicited transporter suppression with the same regional and sex selectivity. Although CPF exposure on GD17-20, PN1-4, or PN11-14 altered the ability of 5HT to modulate adenylyl cyclase, this change did not correspond with the effects on 5HT receptors, suggesting an additional set of effects on proteins that transduce the 5HT signal. Our results indicate that CPF elicits long-lasting changes in 5HT receptors, the presynaptic 5HT transporter, and 5HT-mediated signal transduction after exposure in discrete developmental windows that range from the neural tube stage through synaptogenesis. These effects are likely to contribute to neurobehavioral teratology of CPF.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Efficacy of dental radiographic practices: options for image receptors, examination selection, and patient selection.

Many technical factors and treatment philosophies affect the way dental radiology is practiced. Some, like minimum tube filtration, are legislated. Others, like proper darkroom techniques, are universally acknowledged as essential. Still others, like the selection of an image receptor and the selection of the type of examination, are the subject of much discussion and debate. This article addresses some of the more controversial options and choices facing dental practitioners by reviewing the standard assessment techniques available to help make appropriate decisions, by summarizing and analyzing available data, and by offering recommendations for practice.

Efficiency↗