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At least 811 records · Page 45Linked to original sources
PubMed2001

Nano-electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry of gangliosides from human brain tissue.

A general approach for the detection and structural elucidation of brain ganglioside species GM1, GD1 and GT1 by nano-electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight (nanoESI-QTOF) mass spectrometry (MS), using combined data from MS and MS/MS analysis of isolated native ganglioside fractions in negative ion mode and their permethylated counterparts in the positive ion mode is presented. This approach was designed to detect and sequence gangliosides present in preparatively isolated ganglioside fractions from pathological brain samples available in only very limited amounts. In these fractions mixtures of homologue and isobaric structures are present, depending on the ceramide composition and the position of the sialic acid attachment site. The interpretation of data for the entire sequence, derived from A, B, C and Y ions by nanoESI-QTOFMS/MS in the negative ion mode of native fractions, can be compromised by ions arising from double and triple internal cleavages. To distinguish between isobaric carbohydrate structures in gangliosides, such as monosialogangliosides GM1a and GM1b, disialogangliosides GD1a, GD1b and GD1c or trisialogangliosides GT1b, GT1c and GT1d, the samples were analysed after permethylation in the positive ion nanoESI-QTOFMS/MS mode, providing set of data, which allows a clear distinction for assignment of outer and inner fragment ions according to their m/z values. The fragmentation patterns from native gangliosides obtained by low-energy collision induced dissociation (CID) by nanoESI-QTOF show common behaviour and follow inherent rules. The combined set of data from the negative and positive ion mode low-energy CID can serve for the detection of structural isomers in mixtures, and to trace new, not previously detected, components.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Reduction of cerebral edema with GM1 ganglioside.

Administration of exogenous gangliosides has been reported to accelerate neurite outgrowth in vitro, and to enhance peripheral nerve regeneration and central nervous system recovery subsequent to damage. After injury, facilitation of CNS recovery with GM1 ganglioside treatment has been postulated to be due to enhanced neuronal regeneration. Since maximal recovery is achieved when experimental animals are treated before injury with GM1 ganglioside, an alternative or parallel mechanism is that gangliosides are "protecting" the CNS by limiting the extent of damage (ie, cell loss, process degeneration, membrane disruption). This may be due to a reduction in the edema subsequent to injury. In this study, rats were treated for 2 days with 20 mg/kg/day of GM1 ganglioside. On the third day they were subjected to a unilateral lesion (mechanical) of one cerebral hemisphere and given another 20 mg/kg of GM1. On the fourth day brains were removed for analysis of edema resulting from the injury. In treated animals there was a significant reduction in edema as measured either in the entire injured hemisphere (23%) or in the area of injury (33%). No effect was seen outside the damaged area. Since exogenous gangliosides can spontaneously "insert" into membranes, it is postulated that the effect of the GM1 may be due to alterations of membrane processes (eg, lipid hydrolysis, phospholipase activation, levels and membrane action of arachidonic acid, ionic permeation) that are characteristic of edema.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Effects of ethanol on neuroblastoma cells in culture: role of gangliosides in neuritogenesis and substrate adhesion.

Murine Neuro-2A neuroblastoma cells were exposed to ethanol in culture under two experimental paradigms: (1) short-term (24 hr or less) and low concentrations (0.05 to 0.5%; 8.5 to 86 mM) and (2) long-term (48 hr at 0.5%; 86 mM). Long-term ethanol exposure did not affect Neuro-2A viability, determined by DNA synthesis or the ability to exclude Trypan Blue. Similarly, long-term ethanol treatment did not inhibit differentiation, exhibited by the extension of neurites, promoted by either dibutyryl-cyclic-AMP or by incubation with exogenous ganglioside GM1. The incorporation of exogenous ganglioside GM1 into plasma membranes was not influenced by varying concentrations of ethanol (up to 1.2%; 204 mM). In contrast, ethanol did influence Neuro-2A cell attachment to collagen in a dualistic manner. During short-term ethanol exposure, cell attachment was enhanced. However, when cells were initially exposed to ethanol for 48 hr a marked inhibition of subsequent attachment was observed. Long-term ethanol exposure also inhibited attachment to other substrata, including laminin, fibronectin and vitronectin. Incubation of Neuro-2A cells with either exogenous ganglioside GM1 or a mixture of brain gangliosides partially reversed the inhibition of attachment to collagen. This reversal did not appear to be due to any one particular ganglioside structure, however. Mixed brain gangliosides were fractionated into three fractions, according to the number of sialic acid residues. Each of the three fractions were equally effective in partially restoring Neuro-2A cell attachment to collagen after long-term ethanol treatment. The results suggest that the mechanism by which these effects occur is at the level of plasma membrane fluidity, because both ethanol and glycosphingolipid content are known to influence membrane lateral mobility, although other mechanisms, such as changes in headgroup hydration, are possible.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Analysis of melanoma cells stably transfected with beta 1,4GalNAc transferase (GM2/GD2 synthase) cDNA: relative glycosyltransferase levels play a dominant role in determining ganglioside expression.

Previous studies (Y. Nagata, S. Yamashiro, J. Yodoi, K. O. Lloyd, H. Shiku, and K. Furukawa (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267, 12082-12089) had isolated a putative cDNA coding for beta 1,4 N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (GM2/GD2 synthase) and demonstrated the presence of GM2 and/or GD2 gangliosides in melanoma cell lines stably transfected with this gene. We have now measured the levels of glycosyltransferase activities and mRNA levels in five transfected cell lines in comparison with their parent cell lines (mouse melanoma B16 and human melanoma MeWo). Membrane preparations from the transfected cell lines demonstrated de novo synthesis of GM2 or GD2 in in vitro assays using GM3 or GD3, respectively, as ganglioside acceptors. The enzyme levels, however, varied considerably among the different transfectants, as did the mRNA levels for the beta 1,4 Gal-NAc-transferase. The effect of the transfected gene on levels of preexisting glycosyltransferases involved in ganglioside biosynthesis was also measured and the ganglioside composition of the cell lines was determined. The level of beta 1,4 GalNAc-transferase expressed in the different cell lines was found to dramatically influence the overall ganglioside composition of the cell. In the transfected cell line with the highest levels of the transferase, for example, biosynthesis was almost completely redirected away from the b pathway to the a pathway with the resulting expression of only GM2. These data from this family of related cell lines clearly demonstrate the primary roles that relative glycosyltransferase levels play in determining the ganglioside composition of cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Tissue and developmental specificity of a polysialo-ganglioside species in the amphibian Xenopus.

Xenopus embryos contain a considerable amount of a polysialo-ganglioside not yet fully characterized; in this paper, we will refer to it as ganglioside XI. Preliminary experiments indicate asialo-GMI as the core structure of the ganglioside XI and palmitic and oleic acid as the fatty acids of the ceramide moiety. Further analyses by comparative 2D-TLC with adult fish and chick embryo brains indicate the pentasialilated ganglioside GP1c as the possible structure of XI. In the adult Xenopus, XI characterizes the ganglioside pattern of the central nervous system while is absent in all the other tested tissues. At least two other more polar (presumably richer in sialic acid) bands are often visible under XI, both in embryos and in brain and spinal cord tissues of adult Xenopus. The persistence of polysialo-gangliosides in the brain and spinal cord of adult amphibians could serve to guarantee a proper functioning of the central nervous system at low body temperature.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Exogenous gangliosides enhance recovery from cns injury.

Reports indicate that exogenous gangliosides can accelerate neurite outgrowth in vitro and facilitate peripheral nerve regeneration in vivo. An experiment was designed to assess whether ganglioside administration alters functional recovery and neuronal regeneration after a CNS lesion. Rats trained on an alternation behavior and subjected to a unilateral entorhinal cortical lesion were given daily (i.m.) injections of either total brain ganglioside or GM1 ganglioside. Results show that ganglioside administration reduces the extent of behavioral deficit caused by the lesions and facilitated the course of functional recovery. It is hypothesized that gangliosides are enhancing hippocampal sprouting which occurs subsequent to the entorhinal lesion.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Ganglioside content and composition in human gliomas.

Many alterations of ganglioside content and distribution have been described in human and experimental tumours. Our previous data showed the presence of lipid alterations in meningiomas, in particular an increased monosialylganglioside content. Therefore we analyzed the distribution and content of gangliosides in various gliomas. The data show that ganglioside content is inversely proportional to tissue malignancy and that the ganglioside pattern can be described as lacking of polysialylgangliosides with increased GD3 content. The amount of GD3 (as percent of total gangliosides sialic acid) increases from 15% in astrocytomas grade I to 60% in grade IV. The GD3 increase seems to be almost specific of glioma. Because anti-GD3 antibodies could be used to localize immunohistochemically the ganglioside and to help the tumour grading, we used a purified preparation of GD3 to produce monoclonal antibodies in balb/c mice. But because some clones did produce anti-GD3 antibodies the low yield requires further experiments to obtain an antibody useful for this purpose.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Structural studies of gangliosides from the YAC-1 mouse lymphoma cell line by immunological detection and fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry.

YAC-1 cells were propagated in bioreactors in 1 l and 7.5 l volumes. The cells were metabolically labelled with D-[1-14C]galactose and D-[1-14C]glucosamine. The ganglioside fraction, purified by DEAE-Sepharose and silica gel column chromatography, showed on thin layer chromatography four major bands with mobilities between GM1 and GD1a. Gangliosides, obtained by further purification steps including high performance liquid chromatography on silica gel 60 columns with a gradient system of isopropanol:hexane:water, and preparative high performance TLC were characterized by (1) immunostaining of corresponding asialogangliosides obtained by mild acid hydrolysis and neuraminidase treatment and (2) fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry of native and permethylated samples and methylation analysis of GM1b ganglioside. As well as small amounts of GM2 and GM1, the major gangliosides found in the complex mixture were GM1b and GalNAc-GM1b. The structural heterogeneity of these gangliosides was caused by (a) substitution of the ceramide moiety by fatty acids of different chain length and degree of unsaturation (C16:0, C24:0, C24:1) and (b) N-substitution of the sialic acid moieties with either acetyl or glycolyl groups. Disialogangliosides were detected only in low amounts and will be the subject of further investigation. A polyclonal chicken antiserum was raised against IVNeuAc-GgOse5Cer. The antiserum was highly specific for gangliosides (IVNeuAc and IVNeuGc) and asialogangliosides with a GgOse5Cer backbone. No cross-reaction with GM1b or GgOse4Cer was observed.

Acetylgalactosamine↗
PubMed1982

Role of membrane gangliosides in the binding and action of bacterial toxins.

Gangliosides are complex glycosphingolipids that contain from one to several residues of sialic acid. They are present in the plasma membrane of vertebrate cells with their oligosaccharide chains exposed to the external environment. They have been implicated as cell surface receptors and several bacterial toxins have been shown to interact with them. Cholera toxin, which mediates its effects on cells by activating adenylate cyclase, bind with high affinity and specificity to ganglioside GM1. Toxin-resistant cells which lack GM1 can be sensitized to cholera toxin by treating them with GM1. Cholera toxin specifically protects GM1 from cell surface labeling procedures and only GM1 is recovered when toxin-receptor complexes are isolated by immunoadsorption. These results clearly demonstrate that GM1 is the specific and only receptor for cholera toxin. Although cholera toxin binds to GM1 on the external side of the plasma membrane, it activates adenylate cyclase on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane by ADP-ribosylation of the regulatory component of the cyclase. GM1 in addition to functioning as a binding site for the toxin appears to facilitate its transmembrane movement. The heat-labile enterotoxin of E. coli is very similar to cholera toxin in both form and function and can also use GM1 as a cell surface receptor. The potent neurotoxin, tetanus toxin, has a high affinity for gangliosides GD1b and GT1b and binds to neurons which contain these gangliosides. It is not yet clear whether these gangliosides are the physiological receptors for tetanus toxin. By applying the techniques that established GM1 as the receptor for cholera toxin, the role of gangliosides as receptors for tetanus toxin as well as physiological effectors may be elucidated.

Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose↗
PubMed1990

Gangliosides and phospholipids in human thyroids responsive and unresponsive to thyrotropin.

The patterns of gangliosides and phospholipids and their relation to TSH response were examined in twenty-six malignant thyroid tumors (4 follicular, 6 papillary, 5 medullary, 11 anaplastic carcinomas) and thirty-six hyperplastic goiters. Thirteen thyroid tissues adjacent to benign tumors with no evidence of macroscopic or microscopic abnormalities were used as normal tissue. In normal thyroids the major ganglioside was GD3 (44%) and GM3 was the second ganglioside (20%). In minor amounts GD1a (8.6%), GD1b (6.2%), GT1b (5.7%) and GM1 (5.6%) were present. In hyperplastic goiters and in follicular carcinomas the patterns of gangliosides were similar to that of normal tissue except for GM3 which, in the last tissue, was higher (34%). In papillary carcinomas low levels of GM3 (11%) and GT1b (0.8%) with a high level of GD1b (12.6%) were found. In anaplastic carcinomas GM3 was very high (47%) whereas GD3 was low (18%). In these tumors also a high percentage (14.0%) of GD1a was found. In medullary carcinomas the lowest levels of GM3 (4%) with the highest level of GD3 (64%) were found. Although large differences of the gangliosides distribution were clearly encountered in the various pathological human thyroid, no correlation between lack of TSH response and some individual ganglioside could be made. No differences in the individual phospholipid in the various tissues studied were found.

Adenocarcinoma↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Cerebrospinal fluid antibodies directed against neuron-associated gangliosides in HIV-1 infection.

BACKGROUND: Loss of synapses and neurons is a common finding in HIV-1 infection. Since the in vivo infection of neurons by HIV-1 is limited, indirect factors are likely to contribute to the pathogenesis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We have analyzed cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum samples from 25 HIV-1-infected individuals (nine with and 16 without CNS complications) and 19 HIV-negative controls with aseptic meningitis or viral encephalitis, for the presence of antibodies directed against the neuron-associated gangliosides GM1, GD1a and GD1b. RESULTS: Positive antibody titers to > or =1 of the gangliosides were found in 13/25 HIV-1-infected patients in CSF and in 17/25 in serum. Significant correlations were found between the presence and titers of CSF antibodies against GM1, GD1a, and GD1b. Six out of nine patients with, and 3/16 without neurological complications (p < 0.05) had positive CSF titers of > or = 1 of the ganglioside antibodies combined with negative serum titers, indicating intrathecal antibody production. In contrast, only 1/19 controls had detectable anti-ganglioside antibodies in the CSF. CONCLUSION: The results should be interpreted with caution and CSF anti-ganglioside antibody production might be a part of a non-specific intrathecal polyclonal immunoactivation. Nevertheless, autoantibodies directed against neuron-associated gangliosides might be involved in the neuropathogenesis in HIV-1 disease.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Quantification of gangliotetraose gangliosides with cholera toxin.

A procedure is described for assay of GM1 and other gangliotetraose-type gangliosides at the picomole level. The gangliosides are absorbed onto polystyrene microwells and treated with neuraminidase and then with cholera toxin B subunits conjugated to horseradish peroxidase. Color is developed and quantified spectrophotometrically. Omission of neuraminidase gives a measure of GM1 alone. Linearity was obtained between 0.5 and 3 pmol. This procedure was applied to ganglioside mixtures isolated fron neuro-2A neuroblastoma and PC12 pheochromocytoma cells. For the latter, an additional step involving reaction with fucosidase increased the yield of GM1 due to the presence of fucosylated gangliosides. Application of the same reagents as a TLC overlay procedure to the gangliosides from neuro-2A cells revealed the presence of GD1a, GD1b, and GT1b in addition to GM1, thus confirming the presence of a family of gangliotetraose gangliosides.

Cholera Toxin↗
PubMed1991

Brief treatment of sensory ganglion neurons with GM1 ganglioside enhances the efficacy of opioid excitatory effects on the action potential.

In previous studies, we showed that low (nM) concentrations of opioid prolong the action potential duration (APD) of many mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons via Gs-linked excitatory opioid receptors, whereas micromolar opioid levels shorten the APD via Gi/Go-linked inhibitory receptors. In addition, cholera toxin-B subunit (CTX-B) selectively blocks opioid- but not forskolin-induced prolongation of the APD in DRG neurons. Since CTX-B binds with selective high affinity to GM1 ganglioside located on the cell surface, the results suggest that GM1 plays an essential role in regulating excitatory opioid receptor functions. This hypothesis was tested by treating DRG neurons in mouse DRG-cord explants with exogenous gangliosides and determining whether the efficacy of opioid agonists in prolonging the APD is enhanced. The threshold concentration of the opioids, dynorphin(1-13) and morphine required to prolong the APD in many DRG neurons was markedly decreased from nM to fM levels after bath exposure to 10 nM to 1 microM GM1 ganglioside for less than 5 min. In contrast, GM2 and GM3 gangliosides and asialo-GM1 ganglioside were ineffective, even when DRG neurons were exposed to high concentrations (1-10 microM) for periods greater than 1 h. Although GD1a, GD1b and GQ1b gangliosides appeared to be as effective as GM1 when tested at microM concentrations for 15 min, tests at lower concentrations, shorter periods, and/or at lower temperature (24 degrees vs 34 degrees C), showed that they were significantly less effective than GM1.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1995

Developmental changes of ganglioside expressions in postnatal rat cerebellar cortex.

We previously described the differential distribution of gangliosides in adult rat brain as detected by specific antibodies. We report here the distribution of gangliosides during the development of postnatal rat cerebellum by an immunofluorescence technique with mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Eleven mAbs that specifically recognize each ganglioside were used. Our study revealed that the expression of each ganglioside changed dramatically during the development. GD3 and O-Ac-GD3 were expressed intensely in the external granular layer at 1, 5, and 10 days, whereas GD2 was firstly detected in the internal granular layer at 5 days and GD1b WAS diffusely detected throughout all layers of the cerebellar cortex at early postnatal days. GD2 and GD1b were more intensely expressed in the granular layer at 20, 30, and 80 days, suggesting that premature granule cells expressed GD3 and its derivative, O-Ac-GD3, whereas mature granule cells express GD2 and GD1B intensely. On the other hand, GM1 was exclusively detected in the external granular layer and the molecular layer at 1 and 5 days. The staining sites spread gradually from these outer layers into the internal granular layer and the white matter after 10 days. The positive cells in the external granular layer and the molecular layer appeared to be Bergmann glial cells and their radially ascending cytoplasmic processes. The intensity of the staining in these specialized astroglial cells decreased gradually during postnatal days. In contrast, the expression of GQ1b was very faint at birth, but gradually increased during the development and was detected intensely in the internal granular layer, particularly in the cerebellar glomeruli in adulthood, suggesting that GQ1b expression may be associated with synapse-related structures. The developmental changes of the expression of other gangliosides were also recognized in the postnatal rat cerebellum. These results suggest that specific gangliosides may play an important role in regulating the early events responsible for the orderly formation of the cerebellar cortex.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Cooperativity of ganglioside-dependent with protein-dependent substratum adhesion and neurite extension of human neuroblastoma cells.

The potential involvement of gangliosides in the adherence and neurite extension of human neuroblastoma cells (Platt and La-N1) was investigated on tissue culture substrata coated with the ganglioside GM1-binding protein, cholera toxin B (CTB) subunit, for comparison with similar processes on plasma fibronectin (pFN)-coated substrata. Cells attached with reduced efficiency on CTB substrata as compared with pFN substrata and required a much longer time to form neurite processes for a small percentage of cells on CTB. The specificity of these processes for GM1 binding was tested in a variety of ways. Supplementation of the cells with exogenous GM1, but not GD1a, identified a larger population of cells adherent on CTB (comparable to pFN-adherent cells) and dramatically increased the proportion of cells capable of forming neurites without reducing the time requirement. In ultrastructural studies using the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and immunofluorescence (IF) analyses to discriminate microtubule distributions, neurites of GM1-supplemented cells on CTB were virtually identical with pFN-adherent neurites, whereas unsupplemented cells on CTB generated processes with fine-structural differences. Treatment of cells during the GM1 supplementation period with cycloheximide completely abolished the ability of cells to generate neurites on CTB and decreased the adhesive capacity of cells as well; a similar treatment of cells had no adverse effect on adherence or neurite extension on pFN. The importance of one or more proteins in GM1-dependent processes was further confirmed by demonstrating the trypsin sensitivity of a cell surface component(s) required to achieve maximal attachment on CTB; in contrast, adherence and neurite extension on pFN were much more resistant to this treatment process. Therefore, these experiments demonstrate that certain cell surface gangliosides are capable of mediating adherence and neurite outgrowth of human neuroblastoma cells on a suitable ganglioside-binding substratum; this ganglioside dependence is cooperative with one or more cell surface proteins which can now be analysed. These results are discussed in light of the identification in ref. [16] (Exp cell res 169 (1987) 311) of a second 'cell-binding' domain on the pFN molecule competent for adherence and neurite extension of these neuroblastoma cells, as well as the potential role of pFN binding to a complex ganglioside on the surface of these neural tumor cells in these processes.

Axons↗
PubMed1996

Ganglioside GM1 and GM3 in early human brain development: an immunocytochemical study.

The distribution of GM1 and GM3 gangliosides in human brain development between gestational week (g.w.) 6 and 15 was demonstrated by an immunocytochemical approach using polyclonal anti-GM1 and anti-GM3 antibodies. The first appearance of GM1- and GM3-positive cells was recorded as early as in g.w.6. Both antibodies labeled the cells in the ventricular zone of the telencephalic wall, with radially oriented fibers toward the pial surface, which represent radial glia cells with glia fibers. The intensive GM3 immunoreactivity was also exhibited in proliferating cells in the ventricular zone between g.w.6 and 12. During the period from g.w. 12 to 15, characterized by a rapid multiplication of neurons and glia cells, an increased number of GM1- and GM3-positive cells was observed. Prominent GM1 ganglioside staining was observed at the surface of the cell bodies in the ventricular zone. Besides surface labeling in migrating cells, GM1 immunoreactivity was identified inside the soma in the regions of cortical plate and subplate. GM1 immunoreactivity was more pronounced on the membrane of neuronal cells migrating along radial glia fibers, especially at the contact site between neuronal and glial cells. The GM3 ganglioside was localized mostly inside the soma, showing a granular immunoreactivity pattern. Our observations confirm the presence of GM1 and GM3 gangliosides in neuronal and glial cells in early human brain development. The involvement, especially of GM1 ganglioside in glia-neuronal contacts during migration of neuroblasts to their final destination, as well as the presence of GM3 ganglioside in proliferative cells in the ventricular zone of the telencephalic wall was also recorded.

Brain Chemistry↗
PubMed2003

Induction of neuron-like tubes and liposome networks by cooperative effect of gangliosides and phospholipids.

Although there is a rather large abundance of gangliosides in neurons, their functional role is still unclear. We focused on a physicochemical role of gangliosides in the formation of tubular structures, such as axons or dendrites in neurons. When a ganglioside, GM3, was added to cell-size liposomes that consisted of dioleoylphosphatidyl-choline, tubular structures were induced and liposome networks connected by the tubes were observed by differential interference microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. The potential for various gangliosides to induce tubes was dependent on the structures of their hydrophilic head group. With a large excess of gangliosides, the tubes are destabilized and small fragments, or micelles, are generated. The phenomenon was suggested by physical model calculation. Gangliosides may play a role as building material in neural unique tubular structures.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Differential immune response to gangliosides in Guillain-Barré syndrome patients from Japan and The Netherlands.

Anti-ganglioside antibodies are consistently found in Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) patients from different geographical parts of the world. Several studies indicated differences in relative frequencies of anti-ganglioside reactivity and isotype distribution between GBS patients from Asia and from Europe. We investigated antibody reactivity against the gangliosides GM1, GM1b and GalNAc-GD1a in GBS patients from Japan and The Netherlands in two different laboratories. The proportion of GBS patients with anti-ganglioside antibodies did not differ between the two countries. GBS patients from The Netherlands more frequently had cross-reacting anti-GalNAc-GD1a/anti-GM1b antibodies and a stronger IgM anti-ganglioside response. Our findings indicate that geographical determined factors, dependent on either the host or the triggering infectious agent, determine the isotype distribution and fine specificity of anti-ganglioside antibodies in GBS patients.

Adolescent↗