Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Fluorenes”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 811 records · Page 45Linked to original sources
PubMed2001

Effects of chitin on microbial emulsification, mineralization potential, and toxicity of bunker C fuel oil.

Bunker C, one of the most frequently spilled petroleum products in the US, is difficult to remove from oiled surfaces and is relatively recalcitrant to biodegradation; therefore, emulsification and biodegradability must be optimized before bioremediation can be considered a viable treatment option. Sand from a freshly oiled beach near Dutch Harbor, Alaska, was incubated at 10 degrees C with nutrients (Bushnell-Haas (BH)) or nutrients with crab shell chitin (BH-C). BH-C amendment resulted in greater numbers of bunker C emulsifiers and greater mineralization potentials for hexadecane, phenanthrene, and fluorene than with BH only. Compared to BH alone, mineralization potentials for bunker C also were higher in BH-C, with an estimated 8% of fuel oil mineralized after 6 weeks. Microbially emulsified oil was more toxic than in uninoculated controls (p < 0.05) as measured by Microtox assays. However, toxicity was significantly lower in BH-C than BH after 4 and 6 weeks incubation (p < 0.05).

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments of Santos and Cananéia, SP, Brazil.

Sediment samples from Santos and Cananéia, São Paulo Brazil were analysed by GC-FID and GC-MS for aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in order to gather information on the degree of contamination by oil and other biogenic contributions. Concentrations of total n-alkanes in Santos varied from 1.05 to 4.29 microg g(-1) and aromatic hydrocarbons from 0.08 to 42.39 microg g(-1). In Cananéia total n-alkanes varied from 4.37 to 157.90 microg g(-1). However, aromatic hydrocarbons were not detected. In Cananéia n-alkanes of terrestrial plants with high molecular weight predominate (n-C25, n-C27, n-C29, n-C31 and n-C33). In Santos, a more uniform distribution of the n-alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons was found at all the sediment stations. The hydrocarbon data from stations close to the Saboó Wharf, at Alemoa and in the COSIPA Channel revealed alarming levels of acenaphthylene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene and chrysene.

Brazil↗
PubMed2000

Mutagenesis and carcinogenesis in nucleotide excision repair-deficient XPA knock out mice.

Mice with a defect in the xeroderma pigmentosum group A (XPA) gene have a complete deficiency in nucleotide excision repair (NER). As such, these mice mimic the human XP phenotype in that they have a >1000-fold higher risk of developing UV-induced skin cancer. Besides being UV-sensitive, XPA(-/-) mice also develop internal tumors when they are exposed to chemical carcinogens. To investigate the effect of a total NER deficiency on the induction of gene mutations and tumor development, we crossed XPA(-/-) mice with transgenic lacZ/pUR288 mutation-indicator mice. The mice were treated with various agents and chemicals like UV-B, benzo[a]pyrene and 2-aceto-amino-fluorene. Gene mutation induction in several tumor target- and non-target tissues was determined in both the bacterial lacZ reporter gene and in the endogenous Hprt gene. Furthermore, alterations in the p53- and ras genes were determined in UV-induced skin tumors of XPA(-/-) mice. In this work, we review these results and discuss the applicability and reliability of enhanced gene mutant frequencies as early indicators of tumorigenesis.

2-Acetylaminofluorene↗
PubMed2001

Prediction of Fenton oxidation positions in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Frontier electron density.

Five recalcitrant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ethanol were subjected to Fenton oxidation, and following GC-MS identification of respective oxidation products, their oxidation positions were compared to those predicted by Frontier electron density. Quinone forms of oxidation products were identified in each PAH. With the exception of fluorene, oxidation positions of quinone forms of products of acenaphthylene, anthracene, benz(a)anthracene, and benzo(a)pyrene corresponded with predicted positions in which Frontier electron density was high. From these results, it appears that determining the Frontier electron density of a PAH is a promising method for predicting the Fenton oxidation position.

Ethanol↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Fluorescence spectroscopy of aromatic species produced in rich premixed ethylene flames.

The fluorescence spectra of the condensed species (CS) collected in the soot inception region of a rich premixed laminar ethylene/oxygen flame have been measured by excitation in the UV at 266 and 355 nm excitation wavelength. The contribution of the most abundant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to the CS fluorescence has been evaluated in order to attribute the CS fluorescence at different emission wavelengths to specific aromatic structures. The fluorescence peaks detected in the UV region of the CS fluorescence spectrum was found to be mainly due to a typical PAH like fluorene, that is, the most fluorescent one among the PAH analyzed in the CS by chromatographic analysis. The CS exhibited the larger emission in the visible where the PAH contribution has been shown to be negligible and other fluorescing aromatic species, not identified by chromatographic analysis of the CS, have to be considered responsible for the visible fluorescence. Laser induced fluorescence (LIF) flame measurements excited at 266 nm and detected at two selected wavelengths (310 and 410 nm) have been performed along the flame axis and compared with the CS fluorescence intensity. The LIF and CS fluorescence signals show quite similar axial trends demonstrating that the LIF signals are related to CS fluorescence. In particular, the LIF fluorescence signals detected in the UV could be attributed to the PAH fluorescence whereas the unidentified species contained in the CS can be followed by LIF detection in the visible region.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Photo-oxidation of biodegraded crude oil and toxicity of the photo-oxidized products.

We investigated the physicochemical changes resulting from irradiation by sunlight of biodegraded crude oil. An Arabian light crude oil sample was first subjected to microbial degradation. n-Alkanes and aromatic compounds such as naphthalenes, fluorenes, dibenzothiophenes and phenanthrenes possessing short, alkyl side chain(s) were almost completely degraded, while the contents of the saturated and aromatic fractions were reduced by 70% and 40%, respectively. This biodegraded oil was then suspended in seawater and exposed to sunlight irradiation for several weeks. The most remarkable change caused by the irradiation was a substantial decline in the aromatic fraction with a concomitant increase in the resin and asphaltene fractions. A 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analysis showed that the aromaticity of the biodegraded oil was significantly lower in the irradiated sample. A field desorption-mass spectrometric (FD-MS) analysis showed that sunlight irradiation reduced the average molecular weight of the oil components and formed oxygenated compounds. Consistent with this observation is that the oxygen content in the oil increased as the irradiation was prolonged. The bioavailability of the biodegraded oil was increased by the photo-oxidation: the growth of seawater microbes was minimal when the non-irradiated biodegraded oil was used as the source of carbon and energy; however, growth was significant when irradiated biodegraded oil was used. The concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) increased linearly during the sunlight irradiation of the biodegraded oil, and this increase was matched by an increase in ultraviolet-absorptive materials in the seawater. The photochemically formed, water-soluble fraction (WSF) showed acute toxicity against the halophilic crustacean, Artemia.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Determination of hydrocarbons in old creosote contaminated soil using headspace solid phase microextraction and GC-MS.

Headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) has been used together with GC-MS to analyze organic substances directly in a soil, heavily contaminated with PAHs/creosote (approximately 300 mg/kg soil), from an old gaswork site in Stockholm, Sweden. The HS-SPME results, both qualitative and quantitative, were compared with traditional liquid extraction using ethyl acetate/hexane (20:80). It was shown that the concentrations determined with HS-SPME at 60 degrees C correlated well, for compounds containing up to two and three aromatic rings (naphthalenes, acenaphthene, acenaphthylene and fluorenes, while a lower concentration was obtained for phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and pyrene. The total concentrations for each compound determined with HS-SPME ranged from 2 to 25 microg/g soil. Quantification was done using standard addition of compounds directly to the soil samples. The bioavailable fraction of the compounds in the contaminated soil at 20 degrees C was analyzed using external calibration by spiking sterile uncontaminated sand (same texture and particle size as the contaminated soil but without a heavily sorbed organic fraction) with hydrocarbon standards in different concentrations. Storage of exposed fibers at 20 degrees C showed that analysis should be done within two days to make qualitative measurements and earlier (as soon as possible) for quantitative determinations.

Biological Availability↗
PubMed2001

Enhanced degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by biodegradation combined with a modified Fenton reaction.

A study has been conducted to enhance degradation of a mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by combining biodegradation with hydrogen peroxide oxidation in a former manufactured gas plant (MGP) soil. An active bacterial consortium enriched from the MGP surface soil (0-2 m) biodegraded more than 90% of PAHs including 2-, 3-, and 4-ring hydrocarbons in a model soil. The consortium was also able to transform about 50% of 4- and 5-ring hydrocarbons in the MGP soil. As a chemical oxidant, Fenton's reagent (H2O2 + Fe2+) was very efficient in the destruction of a mixture of PAHs (i.e., naphthalene (NAP), fluorene (FLU), phenanthrene (PHE), anthracene (ANT), pyrene (PYR), chrysene (CHR), and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)) in the model soil; noticeably, 84.5% and 96.7% of initial PYR and BaP were degraded, respectively. In the MGP soil, the same treatment destroyed more than 80% of 2- and 3-ring hydrocarbons and 20-40% of 4- and 5-ring compounds. However, the low pH requirement (pH 2-3) for optimum Fenton reaction made the process incompatible with biological treatment and posed potential hazards to the soil ecosystem where the reagent was used. In order to overcome such limitation, a modified Fenton-type reaction was performed at near neutral pH by using ferric ions and chelating agents such as catechol and gallic acid. By the combined treatment of the modified Fenton reaction and biodegradation, more than 98% of 2- or 3-ring hydrocarbons and between 70% and 85% of 4- or 5-ring compounds were degraded in the MGP soil, while maintaining its pH about 6-6.5.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗
PubMed2003

Influence of heavy metals on the formation and the distribution behavior of PAH and PCDD/F during simulated fires.

Combustion experiments were performed with an artificial fire load (polystyrene and quartz powder) in a laboratory scale incinerator in the presence of gaseous HCl to simulate accidental fire conditions. The aim of this investigation was to trace back the alterations of the formation and the distribution behavior of PAH and PCDD/PCDF to the presence of CuO or a mixture of metal oxides (CdO, CuO, Fe(2)O(3), PbO, MoO(3), ZnO). The total amount of the 16 PAH target compounds was reduced by the factor of 5-9 when the mixture of metal oxides was present rather than merely CuO. PAH patterns as well as their distribution behavior were significantly influenced by these oxides. In general, transportation inside the installation was enhanced for most of the 16 analyzed PAH. Only fluorene and dibenzo[a,h]anthracene were transported to a smaller extent. In contrast to PAH, total concentrations of PCDD were increased by factor 9 and of PCDF by factor 10, respectively, when CuO was present. Adding the mixture of metal oxides resulted in an increase of PCDD by factor 14 and of PCDF by factor 7. CuO and the mixture of metal oxides had a different influence on the PCDD/F homologue patterns. For instance, the HxCDF to OCDF ratio after incineration without any metal oxide was 1 to 6, whereas addition of CuO or the mixture of the metal oxides shifted the HxCDF to OCDF ratios towards 1 to 40 or 1 to 17, respectively. Combustion along with CuO increased transportation of higher chlorinated PCDF congeners, whereas the mixture of the metal oxides caused a strong decrease of PCDF distribution throughout the system.

Fires↗
PubMed2003

Analysis and structure prediction of chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons released from combustion of polyvinylchloride.

Chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Cl-PAHs) released from combustion of polyvinylchloride (PVC) at different furnace temperatures were investigated. A laboratory-scale tube-type furnace with electric heating was utilized to control combustion conditions. Glass fabric filters and adsorbents were used to collect the combustion emissions. Following Soxhlet extraction, concentration and column chromatography purification, isomers separation, selective detection and identification of Cl-PAHs were performed on GC/MS system on the basis of retention data and mass spectra. Their quantification was accomplished by using external standard calibration technique. About 18 Cl-PAHs were determined, most of which were monochlorinated derivatives of naphthalene, biphenyl, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and pyrene. Only two dichlorophenanthrenes or anthracenes were identified. The possible positions of chlorine atoms attached to the aromatic rings are predicted by quantitative structure-property relationship. The levels of these compounds were in the range of 0.30-29.08 microg/g PVC. The relationship between the formation of Cl-PAHs and PAHs was discussed.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2001

Dynamics of PAH deposition, cycling and storage in a mixed-deciduous (Quercus-Fraxinus) woodland ecosystem.

Estimates of standing biomass and fluxes of biomass in a mixed-deciduous woodland were derived, and used with results for concentrations of seven polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different compartments of the woodland system to quantitatively assess some of the key fluxes and burdens of PAHs in this complex system. We quantified PAH burdens in air, in leaves of three deciduous tree species, in leaf litter and in soil, and uptake of PAHs by the tree leaves; PAH fluxes in litterfall, and deposition to the litter layer on the woodland floor during winter were calculated from these data. Air burdens exhibited marked seasonal variations for all compounds, with lowest values in summer when combustion-related emissions were low. Leaves did not accumulate large burdens of PAHs while on the trees and consequently, litterfall-associated fluxes of PAHs were small, representing only a fraction of the burdens in the litter layer to which they were deposited. Higher PAH burdens in air in winter, combined with the organic-matter-rich nature of the litter layer, are thought to be responsible for fluxes of PAHs to the litter layer in winter being 20-170 times the peak litterfall fluxes. The soil compartment was calculated to contain 25 years' worth of deposition of benzo[ghi]perylene, the most recalcitrant PAH in this study. Storage quotients for fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene burdens in soil represented 7-10 years' worth of deposition, while fluorene and phenanthrene storage in soil approached unity with inputs (1 and 3 years' worth of deposition, respectively). The relative importance of storage and loss processes was therefore closely related to the physico-chemical properties of the PAH, and is discussed in relation to the cycling of carbon in the woodland.

Carbon↗
PubMed2001

Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove swamps.

The concentrations of total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (sigmaPAHs) and 15 individual PAH compounds in 20 surface sediments collected from four mangrove swamps in Hong Kong were analysed. sigmaPAH concentrations ranged from 356 to 11,098 ng g(-1) dry weight with mean and median values of 1992 and 1,142 ng g(-1), respectively. These values were significantly higher than those of marine bottom sediments of Hong Kong harbours, suggesting that more PAHs were accumulated in mangrove surface sediments. The concentrations of sigmaPAHs as well as individual PAH compound varied significantly among mangrove swamps. The swamps heavily polluted by livestock and industrial sewage, such as Ho Chung and Mai Po, had much higher concentrations of total PAHs and individual PAH than the other swamps. The PAH profiles were similar among four mangrove swamps, and were dominated by naphthalene (two-ring PAH), fluorene and phenanthrene (three-ring PAH). The mangrove sediments had higher percentages of low-molecular-weight PAHs. These indicated that PAHs in mangrove sediments might originate from oil or sewage contamination (petrogenic input). Ratio values of specific PAH compounds such as phenanthrene/anthracene and fluoranthene/ pyrene, were calculated to evaluate the possible source of PAH contamination in mangrove sediments. These ratios varied among samples, suggesting that mangrove sediments might have a mixed pattern of pyrolytic and petrogenic inputs of PAHs. Sediments collected from Ho Chung mangrove swamp appeared to be more dominated by pyrolytic input while those from Tolo showed strong petrogenic contamination.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons disrupt axial development in sea urchin embryos through a beta-catenin dependent pathway.

Sea urchin (Lytechinus anemesis) embryos were used as an experimental system to investigate the mechanisms of the developmental toxicity of creosote, one of the most widely used wood preserving chemicals, as well as some of its polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) constituents (phenanthrene, fluoranthene, fluorene, pyrene and quinoline). Data suggest that creosote and PAHs affect axial development and patterning in sea urchin embryos by disrupting the regulation of beta-catenin, a crucial transcriptional co-activator of specific target genes in the Wnt/wg signaling pathway. When ciliated blastula stage embryos were exposed to these compounds, they developed into exogastrulae with completely evaginated archentera, demonstrating that these chemicals disrupt axial development and patterning. This response occurred in a dose-dependent fashion, with the EC(50) of creosote for complete exogastrulation being 1.57 ppm, while the EC(50)s of the PAHs ranged from 0.41 ppm (2.0 microM) to 4.33 ppm (33.5 microM). Morphologically, the exogastrulae that developed from embryos exposed to creosote and PAHs appeared to be identical to those that resulted from exposure to lithium chloride, a classical agent known to induce vegetalization and exogastrulation in sea urchin embryos. Immunological studies using antibodies against beta-catenin, a multi-functional protein known to be involved in cell-cell adhesion and cell fate specification during embryonic development, revealed high levels of nuclear accumulation of beta-catenin by cells of creosote- and PAH-exposed embryos, irrespective of their positions in the developing embryo. Dissociated embryonic cells cultured in the presence of these agents rapidly responded in a similar fashion. Since beta-catenin accumulation occurs in nuclei of several types of cancer cells, it is possible this may be a general mechanism by which PAHs affect a variety of different cell types.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Interactions between DNA polymerase and aminofluorene adducts that affect the recognition and possibly the mutagenicity of the lesions.

Adducts of 2-aminofluorene on the C-8 position of guanine block DNA synthesis and lead to mutation. N-acetylated adducts adopt the syn conformation such that in DNA the guanine is displaced from the helix by the fluorene ring while unacetylated adducts prefer the anti conformation allowing normal base pairing of the guanine with cytosine. In vitro synthesis by both E. coli DNA polymerase I and T4 DNA polymerase terminates predominantly one nucleotide before acetylated adducts but has an increased tendency to terminate opposite the unacetylated adducts apparently reflecting the preferred conformations of the two species of reacted nucleoside. In complete contrast AMV reverse transcriptase correctly inserts cytosine opposite the acetylated adducts but prefers to terminate one nucleotide before the unacetylated adducts. We interpret these results as indicating that the specific properties of a replicating polymerase can influence the conformation of a reacted nucleoside thus altering its recognition and possibly its mutagenic activity.

2-Acetylaminofluorene↗
PubMed2003

Modulation of doxorubicin sensitivity by a novel organic compound, oxalyl bis (N-phenyl) hydroxamic acid on acetyl aminofluorene-induced preneoplastic hepatocytes.

Development of biochemical modulators and application of the same with anticancer drugs is a current approach of modern cancer chemotherapy. We report the effect of two novel hydroxamic acid derivatives, viz. oxaly bis (N-phenyl) hydroxamic acid (OBPHA) and succinyl bis (N-phenyl) hydroxamic acid (SBPHA) on doxorubicin sensitivity and on P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in acetyl amino fluorene (AAF) induced preneoplastic hepatocytes in vitro. OBPHA increases doxorubicin sensitivity in AAF induced preneoplastic hepatocytes compared to normal hepatocytes. SBPHA, with an additional -CH(2)-CH(2)- group than OBPHA does not modulate the sensitivity of doxorubicin. The mechanism of action of OBPHA and SBPHA and their in vivo toxicity on male Swiss mice has been studied. OBPHA in combination with doxorubicin (i.e. OBPHA+doxorubicin) has higher antitumour activity compared to doxorubicin alone group; in consequence, OBPHA may decrease the dose related side effect of doxorubicin.

2-Acetylaminofluorene↗
PubMed1979

Effect of pH on the ratio of substitution products in DNA after reaction with the carcinogen N-acetoxy-2-acetylaminofluorene.

The substitution reaction products of N-acetoxy-2-acetylaminofluorene (N-AcO-AAF) and the N-sulfate (potassium salt) of N-hydroxy-4-acetyl-aminobiphenyl (N-OSO3K-AABP) with DNA from calf thymus were determined after reaction in buffered solutions of 0.10 M NaCl at pH values from 4--9. In the case of N-AcO-AAF, the ratio of N-(guanin-8-yl)-2-acetylaminofluorene (N-(guanine-8-yl)-AAF) to 3-(guanin-N2-yl)-2-acetylaminofluorene (3-(guanin-N2-yl)-AAF) increased 2.2 times over the entire pH range studied, starting at pH 9. With the N-OSO3K-AABP, the total substitution of guanine was much lower (22--34 times) as compared with N-AcO-AAF, and the ratio of N-(guanin-8-yl)-4-acetylaminobiphenyl to 3-(guanin-N2-yl)-4-acetylaminobiphenyl was not affected by a change in pH of the reaction medium. As expected, heat-denatured DNA reacted more extensively with both esters, but an increase in substitution was much more pronounced for the biphenyl derivative (9 times) than for the fluorene compound (2.8 times). Degradation, denaturation or interstrand cross-linking of DNA were not observed under the reaction conditions employed.

2-Acetylaminofluorene↗
PubMed2002

Liquid chromatographic determination of isoniazid, pyrazinamide and rifampicin from pharmaceutical preparations and blood.

Isoniazid (IN), pyrazinamide (Pz) and rifampicin (Rf) are separated on YMC-ODS column. IN was derivatized with 2-fluorene-carboxaldehyde (FA). The separation was achieved using ethanol-chloroform-acetonitrile water by isocratic elution and detected at 337 nm. The detection limits were 0.11 ng, 0.2 ng and 13 ng/injection (5 microl) for IN, Pz and Rf, respectively. The method of analysis was applied to the pharmaceutical preparations and in the blood samples of the patients suffering from tuberculosis after undergoing chemotherapy with IN, Pz and Rf. The amounts quantitated in blood showed 0.97 to 1.58 microg/ml IN, 3.44 to 4.09 microg/ml Pz and 1.98 to 3.5 microg/ml Rf with coefficient of variations 0.8-1.8%, 0.9-1.3% and 0.8-2.1%, respectively.

Antitubercular Agents↗
PubMed1997

Phenotypic heterogeneity in nucleotide excision repair mutants of rodent complementation groups 1 and 4.

Rodent ultraviolet light (UV)-sensitive mutant cells in complementation groups (CGs) 1 and 4 normally are known for their extraordinary (approximately 80-100 x) sensitivity to mitomycin C (MMC), although some CG1 mutants with reduced MMC sensitivity were previously reported (Stefanini et al. (1987) Cytotechnology 1, 91). We report here new CG1 and CG4 mutants with only 1.6-10 x wild-type MMC sensitivity despite low unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) levels. Mutant UV140, in UV CG4, has approximately 3.8 x the UV sensitivity of parental line AA8, approximately 1.6 x wild-type MMC sensitivity, wild-type X-ray and ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) sensitivity, and is only slightly (approximately 1.4 x) hypermutable to 8-azaadenine resistance by UV light. It has moderately decreased incision of UV-damaged DNA, has moderately decreased removal of (6-4) photoproducts, and is profoundly deficient in UDS after UV. After UV, it shows abnormally decreased DNA synthesis and persistently decreased RNA synthesis. In addition a cell-free extract of this mutant displays strongly reduced nucleotide excision repair synthesis using DNA treated with N-acetoxy-acetyl-amino-fluorene (AAF). The extract selectively fails to complement extracts of group 1 and 4 mutants consistent with the notion that the affected proteins, ERCC1 and ERCC4, are part of the same complex and that mutations in one subunit also affect the other component. Mutant UV212 is a CG1 mutant with approximately 3.3 x wild-type UV and approximately 5-10 x wild-type MMC sensitivity, with profoundly deficient UDS and hypermutability (approximately 5.8 x) by UV. Mutant UV201, probably in CG1, is only slightly (approximately 1.5 x) UV-sensitive and has near wild-type (1.02X) UV mutability. These unusual group 1 and 4 mutants demonstrate that the unique UV and MMC sensitivity phenotypes displayed by these groups can be separated and support the idea that they are the result of distinct repair functions of the corresponding ERCC1 and ERCC4 genes: nucleotide excision repair for UV lesions and a separate repair pathway for removal of interstrand crosslinks.

Acetoxyacetylaminofluorene↗