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PubMedDate not supplied

The future of theory-of-mind research: understanding motivational states, the role of language, and real-world consequences.

Suggestions are made for future investigation of theory-of-mind development. There needs to be (1) more focus on the development of understanding of desire and intention; (2) research on the role of language in theory-of-mind development that integrates representational-development and social-interaction views; and (3) investigation of the real-world consequences of children's developing understanding of belief, desire, and intention.

Child↗
PubMed2004

A concept analysis of dignity for older adults.

BACKGROUND: Human dignity is an essential value of professional nursing education as well as a component of the American Nurses Association Code of Ethics. Nurses are exhorted to treat patients with dignity, and older adults want to be treated with dignity and die with dignity. Although dignity, particularly the dignity of older adults, is often discussed in the health care literature, its meaning is not always clear. AIM: The aim of this paper is to describe a concept analysis to develop a definition of dignity in older adults. METHODS: Data were collected using a literature review and five focus groups composed of older adults. The literature provided data about professionals' ideas of dignity and the focus groups provided qualitative data about the nature of dignity in older people. The literature review and focus groups were carried out concurrently, followed by synthesis of the findings. FINDINGS: Dignity is an inherent characteristic of being human, it can be subjectively felt as an attribute of the self, and is made manifest through behaviour that demonstrates respect for self and others. Dignity must be learned, and an individual's dignity is affected by the treatment received from others. CONCLUSIONS: A behavioural definition of dignity was constructed and this could provide the theoretical basis for nurses to develop interventions that foster dignity for older people.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial for residents: fundamental physics of MR imaging.

Learning the basic concepts required to understand magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is a straightforward process. Although the individual concepts are simple, there are many concepts to learn and retain simultaneously; this situation may give the illusion that learning the physics of MR imaging is complicated. It is important for the radiologist who interprets MR images to understand the methods used to create the images because image contrast specifically depends on how the image data were acquired. Initial concepts include formation of magnetic fields from electric currents in loops of wire, the resonance phenomenon, the hydrogen proton and its frequency of precession, and absorption of radiofrequency energy. These concepts can then be applied to learn about T1 and T2 relaxation and contrast and how the acquisition parameters of echo time and repetition time can be used to achieve these image contrasts. Basic pulse sequences include the spin-echo, multiecho spin-echo, turbo spin-echo, inversion-recovery, and gradient-recalled-echo sequences.

Internship and Residency↗
PubMed2003

Theory of mind and the self.

This paper will discuss one aspect of the self, the ability to reflect on one's own inner states, in relation to recent work on the cognitive and neural basis of "theory of mind." Are the same representational resources required for "reading" one's own and other minds? Relevant literature from the study of normal development of theory of mind will be reviewed, along with research on a developmental disorder characterized by an apparent inability to think about thoughts: autism. Functional neuroimaging studies of theory of mind will be discussed as will studies that may tap the neural basis of self-reflection. From these different strands of evidence the speculative suggestion will be made that reflecting on one's own thoughts is not a privileged process, but rather relies on-and may have evolved from-the same cognitive and neural functions used for attributing thoughts to others.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed2002

Disconfirmation of person expectations by older and younger adults: implications for social vigilance.

The research examined whether age-related cognitive declines affect performance when people form impressions of others. The results from Experiment 1 showed that young and old participants who held positive expectancies about an individual spent more time processing and had better memory for information that was inconsistent rather than consistent with their expectancies. But participants who held negative expectancies tended to focus on information that was consistent rather than inconsistent with their expectancies. In Experiment 2 the task was made more demanding by limiting the amount of time participants had to form their impressions. Under these conditions, older participants who had positive expectations showed deficits in memory for negative information compared with young participants. As expected, both groups performed similarly when they held negative expectancies for the target. The results suggest that although both older and younger adults process social information similarly under self-paced conditions, older adults may be at a disadvantage processing negative information about positively characterized individuals when the context in which impression formation occurs is cognitively demanding.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

A metacognitive analysis of decision making in adolescence.

Samples of 43 early (CA = 13 years) and 41 middle (CA = 15 years) adolescents were compared on three categories of metacognitive knowledge as they relate to decision making--person knowledge, task knowledge and strategy knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge was assessed using a 19-item questionnaire. Consistent with our hypothesis, middle adolescents showed significantly greater metacognitive knowledge than early adolescents on all three scales. Self-reported decision making style (using the Flinders Adolescent Decision Making Questionnaire) and decision making performance on a hypothetical scenario were also measured. Middle adolescents reported a more competent decision making style than early adolescents, while group differences on the scenario were not found. Adolescents completing the scenario scored significantly higher on all measures of decision making metacognition. Significant correlations were found between metacognitive knowledge of decision making, self-reported decision making style and performance on the decision scenario task. By middle adolescence understanding of what is involved in the activity of decision making is well developed. This growth in understanding, accompanied by changes in social domains, plays a part in decision execution and style.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Who's in the mirror? Self-other discrimination in specular images by four- and nine-month-old infants.

This research investigated the early determinants of self-other discrimination in infancy. Ninety-six 4- and 9-month-old infants were placed facing a live image either of themselves or of another person (experimenter) mimicking them. The specular image was either contingent (on-line), or contingent with a 2-s delay. After a first 1-min presentation, the video image of either the self or the other was suddenly frozen for 1 min (still-face episode). This was followed by a last minute of live presentation. From 4 months of age, infants appeared to perceive and act differentially when facing the specular image of themselves or the mimicking other. In general, infants tended to smile more, look more, and have more protracted first-look duration toward the mimicking other compared with the self. Developmentally, 9-month-olds showed markedly more social initiatives toward the mimicking other compared with the self during the still-face episode. In all, these results indicate that infants develop self-other discrimination in specular images long before mirror self-recognition, which is typically reported by the second year. Discrimination of the self from other is interpreted as a precursory ability and a perceptual foundation of later conceptual self development.

Attention↗
PubMed2002

[Diagnosis of depressive disorder and so-called exhaustion depression. Self-esteem--a central concept].

Depressive disorders can be recognized by the loss of self-esteem; this contrasts with mourning and neurasthenic reactions, in which self-esteem remains intact. Just as depression can result from the gradual reduction and eventual loss of self-esteem, mourning and neurasthenic reactions can evolve into true depressive states. "Exhaustion depression", a new diagnostic category connected to "burnout" situations, should be applied only when criteria for depressive disorder are fulfilled, including loss of self-esteem. When these criteria are lacking we should refer only to an exhaustion state provoked by stress. Neurotic mechanisms may represent a special class of relevant stress factors, but are not seen in manifest neurasthenic reactions and exhaustion depression.

Asthenia↗
PubMed1991

[Recollections and ideas in tobacco dependence].

++Clinico-psychopathological and patho-psychological methods were employed to study statically and over time the main types of reproducing recollections, ideas and correlations to the motivation and formation of tobacco dependence in 480 smokers and non-smokers. Three basic types of reproducing recollections and ideas, namely mental, image-bearing, and mental and image-bearing were distinguished. The main space and time constitutional forms of the types of the development of recollections and ideas are presented. In patients with tobacco dependence, the characteristic features of the explored types of recollections and ideas are viewed as one of the risk factors of the onset of tobacco dependence. The data are presented about their implication in the formation of pathological craving for tobacco smoking.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Training-induced changes in performance self concept and cognitive abilities in the aged].

204 healthy elderly subjects (age range 65-85) participated in a training and retest programme leading to marked performance increases in two types of fluid intelligence tests (figural relations and inductive thinking). Effects of testing and training on self-perceived abilities and competence beliefs were measured on a battery of more and less situation-specific, task-related self-report instruments. The strongest and most consistent positive changes in self-concept of abilities attributable to training were found on judgements of task-related self-efficacy and beliefs in personal utility of acquired competence. Judgements of ability as causes for success and failure in future tests were also affected. The results support the view that fluid ability training is a valuable instrument to increase subjective as well as objective efficacy in thinking related to fluid intelligence. Training can therefore be considered helpful in supporting compensatory efforts to counteract age-related losses in perceived as well as actual ability.

Achievement↗
PubMed2002

Constrained formation of object representations.

Viewers were presented with a rapid sequence of very brief stimulus pairs, each of which consisted of a pictured object followed by a related or unrelated word. The form of relatedness between the picture and word was manipulated across experiments (identical concept, associated concept, ink color of the picture). Recognition memory for the pictures was affected not only by whether or not paired items were conceptually identical or semantically related, but also by whether or not the words named an irrelevant feature, ink color. These results show that sequential items are integrated on the basis of similarity at whatever level is available, so that the stability of the memory representation of one or both items is increased. We propose that a common mechanism may underlie integration, priming, and selective attention.

Association Learning↗
PubMed1995

Delayed matching to complex samples and the formation of stimulus classes in children.

In two experiments (ns = 3 plus a previously tested child, and 2, respectively), children learned delayed matching with complex samples, each consisting of a form and a printed nonsense word. Forms or printed words were comparison stimuli. For form comparisons, selecting the form identical to that in the preceding sample was reinforced. For printed word comparisons, selecting the word identical to that in the preceding sample was reinforced. During testing, the children then matched the forms and printed words to one another. In subsequent training, the samples were (a) old forms combined with new words or (b) old words combined with new forms. Novel matching performances among forms and words appeared across these training phases. Word-form contiguity in a matching-to-sample context may contribute to the formation of classes of stimuli that may be equivalent.

Attention↗
PubMed2006

Understanding of emotional experience in autism: insights from the personal accounts of high-functioning children with autism.

In this study, the authors investigate emotional understanding in autism through a discourse analytic framework to provide a window into children's strategies for interpreting emotional versus nonemotional encounters and consider the implications for the mechanisms underlying emotional understanding in typical development. Accounts were analyzed for thematic content and discourse structure. Whereas high-functioning children with autism were able to discuss contextually appropriate accounts of simple emotions, their strategies for interpreting all types of emotional (but not nonemotional) experiences differed from those used by typically developing children. High-functioning children with autism were less inclined to organize their emotional accounts in personalized causal-explanatory frameworks and displayed a tendency to describe visually salient elements of experiences seldom observed among comparison children. Findings suggest that children with autism possess less coherent representations of emotional experiences and use alternative strategies for interpreting emotionally evocative encounters. Discussion focuses on the significance of these findings for informing the nature of emotional dysfunction in autism as well as implications for theories of emotional understanding in typical development.

Adolescent↗