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PubMed1993

[Air pollution].

This review includes a summary of the symposium "Air Pollution" of the Swiss Society of Pneumology, and supplementary information on in- and outdoor air quality in Switzerland. With regard to atmospheric pollution, high exposures to ozone during summer are of major concern. A substantial reduction of ozone levels appears to be considerable problem in view of the high population and particular topography. More precise estimates of possible health damage require further epidemiological studies. In this context it is interesting to note that the environmental catastrophe of Kuwait did not reveal new insights into the dose-effect relation of air pollutants, in that the exposure of the population and hence the health hazards of oil fires were less serious than expected. As to the wellbeing of humans, indoor air pollution deserves equal attention. The predominant noxious agent is tobacco smoke, which significantly affects the respiratory health of infants. In addition, there is some epidemiological evidence that passive smoking can cause lung cancer. However, a variety of other and often neglected pollutants can be present in homes and at workplaces and may be the cause of various respiratory diseases. Finally, thought is given to more general problems such as better definitions and diagnosis of diseases due to airborne agents, the cost-benefit ratio and the conflicts of interest involved in effective control measures.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Analytical microscopy and environment. Current developments using bioindicators of pollution by stable and radioactive elements.

Ecotoxicological investigations were performed on three sets of bioindicators. The first one concerns marine pollution of invertebrates (molluscs: the mussel Mytilus edulis and related species, crustaceans: the crab Liocarcinus puber and related species), contaminated by stable or radioactive elements originating from wastes discharged into sea water. The second one concerns freshwater pollution of vertebrates (fish: the brown trout Salmo trutta fario), contaminated by aluminium dissolved in rivers, as a consequence of an atmospheric pollution by acid rain. The third one concerns the atmospheric pollution of trees by plutonium (Casuarina equisetifolia). Mechanisms involved in the uptake, storage and elimination processes of these toxicants were studied, with a special emphasis on cellular and subcellular aspects of concentration sites. Two microanalytical methods were employed: Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), using the ion microscope and the ion microprobe, and X-ray spectrometry using the electron microprobe (EMP). In marine organisms, the target organs and tissues of bioaccumulation of stable and radioactive elements (238U, 239Pu and 241Am), were shown to be mainly digestive gland, gill and exoskeleton. The target organelles were shown to be spherocrystals and lysosomes. Amoebocytes, enzymatically equipped with lysosomal phosphatase, were involved in the phagocytic clearance of metal pollutants. In trout, insolubilisation of Al phosphate within lysosomes and a high metal concentration within bones were observed. The tree Casuarina equisetifolia exhibits a particular ability to concentrate atmospheric plutonium within its leaves.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2002

Association of air pollution with school absenteeism due to illness.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the association of air pollution and school absenteeism among elementary students. DESIGN: Time-series analysis of air pollution and school absenteeism data with controlling for long-term trends, seasonality, day of the week, and holiday as well as meteorologic variables. SETTING: School absenteeism data for the period from March 2, 1996, to December 22, 1999, were collected from student attendance reports of one elementary school in Seoul, Korea. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The number of daily illness-related absences was analyzed against the daily levels of air pollution by generalized additive Poisson regression. The relative risks of absenteeism for air pollution exposure of interquartile ranges (the range from the lowest 25% of the value to the lowest 75% of the value) on absenteeism were calculated on the same day. RESULTS: Exposure to air pollutants such as particulate matter of 10 micro m or less in aerodynamic diameter (PM(10)), sulfur dioxide, and ozone, was associated with illness-related absenteeism. The estimated relative risks were 1.06 (95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.09) per 42.1- micro g/m( 3) increase in PM(10), 1.09 (95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.12) per 5.68-part per billion increase in sulfur dioxide, and 1.08 (95% confidence interval, 1.06-1.11) per 15.94-part per billion increase in ozone. There was no significant relationship between nitrogen dioxide level and illness-related absenteeism. CONCLUSION: Air pollution is associated with illness-related absences among elementary students.

Absenteeism↗
PubMed2005

Flared gases and other pollutants associated with air quality in industrial areas of Nigeria: an overview.

Nigeria, like any other developing nation, is faced with the twin problem of development without destruction. Industrialization, though an important component of development, has had a large share in the despoilation of air quality in the country by the release of high amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere. Petroleum hydrocarbons from refineries, flared gases, dusts, and fumes of metal-smelting and cement works, odorous gases of chemical and allied industries, carbon monoxide and oxides of sulfur and nitrogen of internal combustion engines, the charred particulates and sulfur dioxide emissions of the steel industries etc., all constitute pollutants or co-pollutants of the Nigerian atmosphere. This review article gives an insight into the phenomenal concentrations of some of these pollutants in the Nigerian atmosphere, which point to their unsafe levels and concomitant health risks. It is against this background that there should be continuous but sound monitoring exercise of the Nigerian environment, devoid of the peculiar mix of politics and science, in order to properly audit the quality of air, especially in areas of heavy industrial pollution. Such checks and balances would provide empirical data to assess the various trade-offs of atmospheric pollution in industrial areas of the country such as the Niger Delta region where oil and gas are produced. There should also be enforcement, thereof, of all existing and/or revised standards or regulations such as the compliance limits of the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) or the erstwhile Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA).

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2004

Toxicity testing of heavy-metal-polluted soils with algae Selenastrum capricornutum: a soil suspension assay.

A small-scale Selenastrum capricornutum (Rhapidocelis subcapitata) growth inhibition assay was applied to the toxicity testing of suspensions of heavy-metal-polluted soils. The OECD 201 standard test procedure was followed, and algal biomass was measured by the fluorescence of extracted chlorophyll. The soils, which contained up to (per kilogram) 1390 mg of Zn, 20 mg of Cd, and 1050 mg of Pb were sampled around lead and zinc smelters in northern France. The water extractability of the metals in suspensions (1 part soil/99 parts water w/v) was not proportional to the pollution level, as extractability was lower for soil samples that were more polluted. Thus, the same amount of metals could be leached out of soils of different levels of pollution, showing that total concentrations of heavy metals in soil (currently used for risk assessment purposes) are poor predictors of the real environmental risk via the soil-water path. Despite high concentrations of water-extracted zinc (0.6-1.4 mg/L of Zn in the test), exceeding by approximately 10-fold the EC(50) value for S. capricornutum (0.1 mg Zn/L), 72-h algal growth in the soil extracts was comparable or better than growth in the standard control OECD mineral medium. The soil suspension stimulated the growth of algae up to eightfold greater than growth using the OECD control medium. Growth stimulation of algae was observed even when soil suspensions contained up to 12.5 mg Zn/L and could not be explained by supplementary nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbonate leached from the soil. However, if the growth of algae in suspensions of clean and polluted soils was compared, a dose-dependent inhibitory effect of metals on algal growth was demonstrated. Thus, as soil contains nutrients/supplements that mask the adverse effect of heavy metals, a clean soil that has properties similar to the polluted soils should be used instead of mineral salt solution as a control for analysis of the ecotoxicity of soils.

Cadmium↗
PubMed2000

Health surveillance in the population living in a methyl mercury-polluted area over a long period.

It is important to follow up on the health status of inhabitants living in the methyl mercury-polluted area surrounding Minamata City, paying particular attention to diseases not only of the central nervous system but also of other organs. We have been carrying out such concentric studies for more than 10 years. We have previously studied the cause-specific standard mortality ratios in Minamata disease patients and reported that the SMRs for liver disease and renal disease were significantly raised in male and female patients, respectively. It was also found that complications arising from diabetes could be due to the large number of old people among the autopsy cases. The next step was to clarify the actual prevalence and incidence of liver disease, renal disease, and diabetes mellitus epidemiologically among the population in this area. The aim of this study was to determine the actual prevalence of these diseases and complaints, and to investigate the contribution of various risk factors to these diseases in this area. The study was a population-based cross-sectional mass screening survey. A case-control study was designed to estimate the role of various risk factors including methyl mercury exposure for these diseases. A mass multiple health examination survey was performed in 1500 subjects aged 40 years and older in Tsunagi Town, neighboring Minamata City, every summer since 1984. Tsunagi Town is located in a methyl mercury-polluted area and there are 36.9 certified Minamata disease patients per 1000 population. Data concerning liver disease, renal disease, and diabetes mellitus were collected on the basis of urine, hematological, physical, and ultrasonographic examinations. Data on risk factors and subjective complaints were collected by interview and other measures. The prevalence of these diseases was not higher in this methyl mercury-polluted area compared with other areas in Japan, contrary to what was expected based on standard mortality ratios and pathological findings. There were no positive correlations between those diseases and methyl mercury exposure. On the other hand, the population in the polluted area had more and a greater variety of complaints than those in the nonpolluted area. It is possible that not only neurological subjective complaints but also nonspecific complaints of the population in the polluted area might be influenced by past methyl mercury exposure. This health surveillance in the population living in a methyl mercury-polluted area must be maintained in the future.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

The association between daily mortality and ambient air particle pollution in Montreal, Quebec. 1. Nonaccidental mortality.

This study was undertaken to determine whether variations in concentrations of particles in the ambient air of Montreal, Quebec, during the period 1984 to 1993, were associated with daily variations in nonaccidental mortality. Fixed-site air pollution monitors in Montreal provided daily mean levels of various measures of particulates and gaseous pollutants. Total sulfates were also measured daily (1986-1993) at a monitoring station 150 km southeast of the city (Sutton, Quebec). We estimated associations for PM(2.5), PM(10), total suspended particles, coefficient of haze (COH), extinction coefficient, and sulfates. We used coefficient of haze, extinction coefficient, and Sutton sulfates to predict fine particles and sulfates for days that were missing. To estimate the associations between nonaccidental mortality and ambient air particles, we regressed the logarithm of daily counts of nonaccidental mortality on the daily mean levels for the above measures of particulates, after accounting for seasonal and subseasonal fluctuations in the mortality time series, non-Poisson dispersion, weather variables, and gaseous pollutants. There were 140,939 residents of Montreal who died during the study period. We found evidence of associations between daily nonaccidental deaths and most measures of particulate air pollution. For example, the mean percentage increase (MPC) for an increase of total suspended particles of 28.57 microg/m(3) (interquartile range, IQ), evaluated at lag 0 days, was 1.86% (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.00-3.76%), and for an increase of coefficient of haze (IQ=18.5 COH units per 327.8 linear m) the MPC was 1.44% (95% CI: 0.75-2.14%). These results are similar to findings from other studies (the mean percentage increase in nonaccidental deaths for a 100 microg/m(3) increase in daily total suspended particles was 6.7%). We also found increases for fine particles and for inhalable particles, but the confidence intervals included unity. All measures of sulfates showed increased daily mortality; e.g., the MPC for sulfates from fine particles (IQ=3.51 microg/m(3)) was 1.86% (95% CI: 0.40-3.35%). We generally found higher excesses in daily mortality for persons 65 years of age and for exposures averaged across lags 0, 1, and 2 days. The slope of the association between daily mortality and ambient air particles in Montreal, which has lower levels of pollution than most major urban centers, is similar to that reported in most other industrialized cities. This study therefore provides further evidence that the association is linear and that any threshold effect, should it exist, would be found at lower levels of air pollution than those found in Montreal.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Air pollution and disability days in Toronto: results from the national population health survey.

The influence of air pollution on disability days in Toronto during the period 1994-1999 was examined using data from Canada's National Population Health Survey. A model of disability days (the sum of days spent in bed and days when the respondent cut down on usual activities) during the 2 weeks prior to the interview was constructed by sequentially examining the influence of time period, personal characteristics, weather, and air pollution. After adjusting for these other factors, only the effects of carbon monoxide and particulate matter of median diameter less than 2.5 microm (PM2.5) were statistically significant (respectively, 30.8% (95% CI 1.2-69.0) and 21.9% (95% CI 3.8-43.0) increase in disability days for a change in concentration equal to the interquartile range of the 2-week average pollutant concentration). PM2.5 was more strongly associated with disability days in the warm season. Results of multipollutant models were difficult to interpret in that effect sizes appeared to be influenced by covariation among pollutants. With the exception of warm season results for PM2.5, findings were not sensitive to alternative analytical approaches. While these results are suggestive of significant effects of the urban air pollution mix at relatively low ambient concentrations, the precise contribution of individual pollutants could not be determined.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2001

Air pollution caused by opencast mining and its abatement measures in India.

Opencast mining dominates coal production in India. A survey was conducted to evaluate its local atmospheric impact. Emissions data were utilised to compute dust generation due to different mining activities. Work zone air quality, ambient air quality and seasonal variations are described revealing high pollution potential due to suspended particulate matter (SPM) and consequent impact on human health. Air pollution control measures involve planning and implementing a series of preventive and suppressive measures in addition to dust extraction systems. Different abatement measures are enumerated. Pollution control by trees, the tolerance of trees to different air pollutants and plant species useful for controlling pollution are also discussed. There is a need for wider application of dust control chemicals on haul roads. Sustainable management of pollution can be achieved by the proper implementation of suggested abatement measures.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed1996

Effects of air pollution on hematological and plasma parameters in Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus musculus.

The effects of atmospheric air pollution on some hematological and plasma parameters, activity, and food and water consumption in Apodemus sylvaticus (wood mouse) and Mus musculus (mouse) were studied. The studies were undertaken in the area of Cercs (polluted area in Spain), where there is a coal-fired power plant that emanates SO2, NOx, and particles, and the area of St. Jaume de Frontanyà (nonpolluted area), located 40 km from the area of Cercs, with similar climatology, relief, and altitude, but without air pollution. Apodemus sylvaticus were captured in the field and Mus musculus were placed in cages in both studied areas. The results showed that there is a significant decrease in hematocrit, and a significant increase in leucocyte number, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, osmolality, and gamma-globulin in Mus musculus, and a decrease in albumin (%) and albumin/globulin index in Apodemus sylvaticus. A negative correlation between hematocrit values and pollution was found. In mice placed in cages in the polluted area a slight but significant decrease in water and food consumption, and slower activity, was observed. The results suggest that pollution could induce a decrease in water and food consumption, which may be due to an observed reduction in activity.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1993

Effects of atmospheric pollution on human health.

Most air pollutants do not lead to specific diseases. Depending on the pollutant, the concentration and the duration of exposure, some organs are more affected than others. The most frequent disorders are those caused by irritant gases and particulates on the mucous membranes and respiratory organs. The consequences are eye, nose and throat inflammations, diminished lung function, increased susceptibility to respiratory infection and a higher incidence of chronic bronchitis. These disorders and diseases are, of course, influenced by other factors as well, such as immune deficiency, allergies, occupational exposure to pollutants, and particularly smoking. The effects of air pollutants are, therefore, multifactorially conditioned and nonspecific disorders are placed in the foreground. Evidence for an association of air pollution with adverse effects on human health is drawn from three sources: animal experiments, experimental human exposures, and epidemiologic studies of exposed human populations. The burden of atmospheric pollution must be reduced to protect human health by an adequate safety margin. In particular, the increased sensitivity of sick and aged people as well as children should be taken into account. In defining the maximum emission levels, preventive aspects should have priority so as to keep the risk of damage to health and the harmful influences on the environment to a minimum.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1986

[Pollution of room air].

In the last decade the significance of indoor air pollution to human health has increased because of improved thermal insulation of buildings to save energy: air turnover is reduced and air quality is impaired. The most frequent air pollutants are tobacco smoke, radioactive radon gas emanating from the soil, formaldehyde from furniture and insulation material, nitrogen oxides from gas stoves, as well as solvents from cleaning agents. The most important pollutants leading to health hazards are tobacco smoke and air pollutants which are emitted continuously from building materials and furniture. Such pollutants have to be eliminated by reducing the emission rate. A fresh air supply is necessary to reduce the pollutants resulting from the inhabitants and their activities, the amount depending on the number of inhabitants and the usage of the room. The carbon dioxide level should not exceed 1500 ppm.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed1990

Air pollution and pediatric respiratory disease: croup.

The question of a causative interrelation between air pollution and croup has received considerable attention by the mass media. A series of epidemiological studies has tried to establish a scientific basis for these speculations. Some studies have compared the occurrence of croup with locally measured concentrations of pollutants, while others have observed differences in the incidence of croup between populations subjected to different levels of pollution. Results have so far remained contradictory, most studies have failed to control for other variables, and thus clear-cut evidence for the etiologic role of air pollution has yet not been established on an epidemiological basis. On the other hand, simple croup is caused by viral infection, while recurrent croup is associated with allergy and airway hyperreactivity. Animal studies have documented that air pollution can reduce resistance against viral infections, increase the risk of allergic sensibilization, and induce airway hyperreactivity. Conceivably, air pollution could thus have a supportive role in the development of croup, but this possibility requires further investigation.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2003

Political economy of transnational water pollution: what do the LMB data (1985-2000) say?

On the basis of the cross-section and time-series data of the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB)--including large sections of Thailand, Lao PDR, Vietnam, and Cambodia, we find little evidence in support of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. Instead, our regressions support the general views that water pollution had been positively related to income level and that, as a result of the end of the Cold War era, it had been significantly reduced in the 1990s vis-à-vis the 1980s. In most circumstances, water resources were more seriously polluted in the transnational border areas than in the other areas. Specifically, the estimated coefficients on the political boundary dummies show that political influence on transnational water pollution was more significant in areas near "the international border along which the river runs" (denoted by BORDER2) than in places near "the international border across which the river runs" (denoted by BORDER1). The estimated coefficients on the ASEAN dummy present some information about the positive role of the Association for Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) membership in the reduction of transnational water pollution. Finally, the country-specific dummies are found to present conflicting information about the transnational differences of water pollution, although Thailand is found to have the least water pollution in the LMB.

Asia↗
PubMed2003

Effectiveness of constructed overland flow areas in decreasing diffuse pollution from forest drainages.

Forestry is the largest scale human impact affecting catchments in Finland and a prominent source of diffuse pollution in many water courses. Among the forestry activities, draining of wetlands had the most pronounced impacts on sediment, nutrient, and metal loading in the past. At present, renovation of old ditches and fertilization of peatlands constitute the major risk of forestry-induced diffuse pollution. Contemporary forestry aims at decreasing this risk with various riparian buffer strip designs. Among such designs, creation of overland flow areas by plugging the outlet ditches is increasingly used. Our objectives were to evaluate the potential of constructed overland flow areas to function as riparian buffers and estimate the quality and quantity of diffuse pollution from old versus recent forest drainages. We studied retention and release of pollutants from 20 constructed, 2- to 10-m-wide overland flow areas receiving drainage water from forested peatlands. Drainage waters were sampled above and below the plugged ditches three times per year from 1998 to 1999. Chemical oxygen demand and nutrient and metal loads and concentrations varied strongly between seasons, years, and drainage areas. Areas subjected to recent ditch renovations and fertilizations had clearly elevated seasonal loads and concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), PO4, Fe, and Al in comparison to old treatment areas. Especially TP loads were high above the national average values measured for forestry-induced diffuse pollution. In general, water quality above and below the buffer strips did not differ significantly. Our results indicate that plugged outlet ditches and associated narrow overland flow areas do not function as proper buffers in peatland areas. We suggest that wider buffers with extensive overland flow areas are needed in order to control diffuse pollution from forested and drained peatlands.

Diffusion↗
PubMed2005

An evaluation of air pollution health impacts and costs in São Paulo, Brazil.

The need to determine cost estimates of the hazardous effects of diseases is important in order to establish the priorities of actions for prevention and health management. The evaluation of air pollution impacts on health, based on expenditures, has been carried out, but there are obvious comparison difficulties among countries, as the health-per-capita investment varies enormously. In order to achieve a standard indicator, we applied the Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) method to estimate the health burden and cost estimate due to air pollution in São Paulo, Brazil. The basic methodology was the utilization of dose-response curves of epidemiological studies conducted in São Paulo to assess air pollution and its health effects. DALY attributable to air pollution in São Paulo added up to 28,212 years annually. An indirect health cost attributable to air pollution resulted in 3,222,676 US dollars. This estimate refers to the children and the elderly population. These results give a preliminary and underestimated value of the burden of diseases promoted by air pollution.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

Evolving policies to regulate pollution from animal feeding operations.

Due to concentrations of animals at large facilities, animal feeding operations (AFOs) have emerged as a major potential source of water pollution. The federal government regulates concentrated animal feeding operations under its point-source pollution permitting regulations. A major determinant of whether an operation must apply for a permit is the number of animals at an individual lot or facility. This paper examines federal mandatory controls and voluntary guidelines that seek to reduce contaminant pollution from AFOs. Land treatment practices are delineated due to their importance in reducing the injurious by-products of agricultural production. An evaluation of proposed revisions to federal regulations on confined animal feeding operations suggests they diverge from their goal of controlling water pollution. Federal regulations focus on the size of operation and amount of manure governed by the permitting process to the exclusion of other criteria related to the impairment of water quality. Given the uncertainties about the amount of pollution from AFOs, lack of enforcement of existing regulations, localization of problems, and possible alternatives for addressing the pollution, more demanding federal regulations may not form an appropriate response.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2005

Extractable hydrocarbons, nickel and vanadium contents of Ogbodo-Isiokpo oil spill polluted soils in Niger Delta, Nigeria.

An oil spill polluted site at Ogbodo-Isiokpo in Ikwere Local Government Area of Rivers State in southern Nigeria, was identified for study following three successive reconnaissance surveys of oil fields in the Agbada west plain of Eastern Niger Delta. A sampling area of 200 m x 200 m was delimited at the oil spill impacted site using the grid technique and soils were collected at surface (0-15 cm) and subsurface (15-30 cm) depths from three replicate quadrats. A geographically similar, unaffected area, located 50 m adjacent to the polluted site, was chosen as a control (reference) site. Total extractable hydrocarbon contents of the polluted soils ranged from 3.02-4.54 and 1.60-4.20 mg/kg (no overlap in standard errors) at surface and subsurface depths respectively. The concentrations of two "diagnostic" trace heavy metals, nickel (Ni) and vanadium (V), which are normal constituents of crude oil, were also determined in the soils by atomic absorption spectrophotometric method after pre-extraction of cations with dithionite-citrate carbonate. Ni varied from 0.15 to 1.65 mg/kg in the polluted plots and from 0.18 to 0.82 mg/kg in the unpolluted plots; vanadium varied from 0.19 to 0.70 mg/kg in the polluted plots and from 0.14 to 0.38 mg/kg in the unpolluted plots. Ni and V were more enhanced (p < 0.05) in the oil-polluted soils, especially at subsurface depth. Whilst the oil spillage could be said to be indirectly responsible for the enhanced concentrations of nickel and vanadium via the injection and availability of the petroleum hydrocarbons that might have increased the activities of biodegradation on site, the physico-chemical properties of the soils and inherent mobility of metals, as well as the intense rainfall and flooding that characterized the period of study, may have also contributed, at least in part, to these enhanced concentrations. Such levels of Ni and V may result to enhanced absorption by plants, which may bring about possible bioaccumulation in such plants and the animals that depend on them for survival and all of these may lead to toxic reactions along the food chain.

Environmental Monitoring↗