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PubMed2004

Chronic aerial exposure to glucorticoids or beta-agonists affects avoidance learning and exploratory motivation in rats.

The purpose of the present work was to examine if the conventional asthma treatments in humans (inhalation of glucocorticoids or beta-agonists, administered in a chronic regimen) might affect behavioral processes (learning and exploratory motivation) in rats. Adult male rats were exposed to an atmosphere saturated with either saline, budesonide (a glucocorticoid), or salbutamol (a beta-adrenergic receptor agonist) in a forced ventilation cage, connected to a nebulizer for 5 min twice a day for 15 days at the same hours of the day. Doses of budesonide in the nebulizing solution were 0.116, 1.16, and 11.6mM. Doses of salbutamol in the nebulizing solution were 1.3, 13, and 130 mM. Forty-eight hours after treatment, the different groups were subjected to exploration of an elevated asymmetric plus-maze (APM, model of exploratory motivation), and 24h later to learning of an avoidance response to an ultrasonic tone in a two-compartment cage (model of memory and learning). Results showed that budesonide induces moderate effects on exploratory motivation. In one of the fear-inducing arms (single wall arm), exploration decreased and this effect was not dose dependent. In the cognitive model, glucocorticoids affected slightly the latency to escape but with no interference in memory efficiency. On the other hand, at the lower dose in the APM, salbutamol increased significantly the exploration of both fear-inducing arms (no walls and single wall arms). In the learning model, the beta-agonist induced two opposing effects. The lower dose (1.3mM) facilitated learning and the higher dose (13 mM) inhibited learning instead. In conclusion, results are compatible with the notion that inhaled glucocorticoids or beta-agonists might cross the lung aerial barrier into the blood compartment, exerting effects on learning and motivation functions.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed1999

Sexual motivation--an inquiry into events determining the occurrence of sexual behavior.

For the individual engaged in it, sexual behavior has no finality or purpose other than its own execution. Data are presented showing that the execution of sexual reflexes can promote learning, i.e. it functions as reinforcement. Furthermore, positive affect is generated. Based on these principles, a model of sexual motivation has been elaborated. The conceptual framework is the incentive motivation theory previously proposed by Bindra D, A motivational view of learning, performance, and behavior modification, Psychol Rev 1974: 81:199-213; A Theory of Intelligent Behavior, New York: Wiley, 1976; How adaptive behavior is produced: a perceptual-motivational alternative to response reinforcement, Behav Brain Sci 1978; 1:41-52. Although the model is intended for application to most mammals, the rat is used as example. Essentially, sexual approach behaviors are activated by appropriate incentives (conditioned in the male, unconditioned in the female). Approach is, in the inexperienced male, followed by the execution of copulatory reflexes as a consequence of accidentally obtained tactile stimulation of the perineal region. In the female, copulatory acts are activated by tactile stimulation of the flanks and hinds provided by the mounting male. The role of conditioning for the execution of copulatory reflexes and for the acquisition of incentive value of neutral stimuli is analyzed. It is also shown that the incentive properties of sexual acts are not substantially different from those of other incentives. Sexual exhaustion is suggested to be either a case of negative alliesthesia or of stimulus habituation and the Coolidge effect is, in consequence, an example of dishabituation. Studies in women and men support this proposal. It is emphasized that sexual behavior is best understood as being entirely mechanistic albeit not deterministic.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Motivating students towards self-directed learning.

This article examines what motivates students towards self-directed learning (SDL). The results discussed are taken from a larger study examining students' perceptions of SDL, a concept that is increasingly evident in nurse education. The study focuses on the views of pre-registration students and their tutors. The study was conducted in two phases, firstly using focus groups, followed by a questionnaire to test the views of the focus group participants amongst a wider audience. A total of 12 students and 8 tutors took part in the focus groups, There were 97 student responses to the questionnaire and 18 tutor responses. The results indicated a wide range of motivational factors, with a good level of agreement between the two groups for most factors. The results also highlighted the importance of lectures in motivating students towards SDL. This link between teacher-led activities and the development of independent learners is not readily acknowledged in literature on adult learning. The study also indicated that students need specific guidance and feedback to motivate them towards SDL, which is not consistent with the philosophical basis of SDL and may lead to inconsistency amongst tutors in the facilitation of this process. Implications for practice are discussed within this article.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Motivation for behavior change among sex offenders. A review of the literature.

Motivation for behavior change is considered a crucial issue in the treatment of sex offenders. However, there has been no systematic investigation of this issue. The first aim of this review is to draw together the literature related to motivation for behavior change among sex offenders. The second aim is to highlight issues that need to be addressed to facilitate an empirical investigation of motivation for change among sex offenders. It is argued that a better understanding of motivation for change among sex offenders will contribute to enhancing the efficacy of treatment programs for these offenders.

Humans↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Motives for not drinking alcohol among Australian adolescents: development and initial validation of a five-factor scale.

Why people drink has been the subject of much research, however, why people do not drink has been largely neglected. The aim of the present study was to develop a Motives for Abstaining from Alcohol Questionnaire (MAAQ) based on Cox and Klinger's [Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97 (1988) 168; Why people drink (1990) 291] motivational model of alcohol use to investigate reasons for not drinking alcohol either at all or on certain occasions. An initial 35-item version of the MAAQ was administered to 187 Australian high school students (years 10 and 12). Analyses supported a five-factor model with the final 19-item version explaining 60% of the variance. The factors were easily interpretable and were labeled: fear of negative consequences, dispositional risk, family constraints, religious constraints, and indifference toward alcohol. Regression analyses showed that different motives for not drinking predicted different aspects of alcohol use. Results are discussed in terms of theories of alcohol use that emphasize the interface of opponent motivational pathways toward decisions to drink.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Tonically active neurons in the striatum encode motivational contexts of action.

In order to achieve a goal, one procures immediately available rewards, escape from aversive events or endures absence of rewards. The neuronal substrate for these goal-directed actions includes the limbic system and the basal ganglia. In the basal ganglia, classes of projection neurons in the striatum show activity with motivational as well as sensorimotor properties, such as expectation of reward and task schedule for obtaining reward. Tonically active neurons (TANs), presumed cholinergic interneurons in the striatum, respond to reward-associated stimuli, evolve their activity through learning and respond also to aversive event-associated stimuli such as airpuff on the face. A recent study showed that responses to visual cues are less selective to whether the cue instructs reward or no reward. To address this paradox, we asked macaque monkeys to perform a set of visual reaction time tasks while expecting the reward, aversive event or absence of reward. We found that TANs respond to instruction stimuli associated with motivational outcomes but not to unassociated ones, and that they mostly differentiate associated instructions. We also found that the higher percentage of TANs in the caudate nucleus respond to stimuli associated with motivational outcomes than in the putamen, whereas the higher percentage of TANs in the putamen respond to GO signals than in the caudate nucleus especially for an action anticipating a reward. These findings suggest a distinct, pivotal role played by TANs in the caudate nucleus and putamen in encoding instructed motivational contexts for goal-directed action selection and learning in the striatum.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed1997

The role of condom motivation education in the reduction of new and reinfection rates of sexually transmitted diseases among inner-city female adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to document the effectiveness of small group condom motivation education in reducing new and reinfection rates of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) among female teenagers. Two hundred and five (205) female adolescents (age 13-20) with a current STD were studied at two sites of a Teen Health Clinic. There were 86 teens in the Study Group and 119 in the Comparison Group. Patients were sampled from December 1992 to July 1993. The patients in the Study Group received a condom motivation class given by the clinic STD educator in small groups of four or more adolescents. The Comparison Group, comparable in age and ethnicity, received treatment for their STD but did not participate in condom motivation classes. All teens were given treatment and condoms. The sample was followed for 6 months. The total number of patients returning with new infections was 21 (14.7%). The total number of patients with reinfections was 14 (9.8%). There were no significant differences between the Study and Comparison Group on return rates, new and reinfection rates or on any socio-demographic variables. The comparison of these groups suggests that a specific condom motivation class has minimal effectiveness in urban teens. However, almost 70% of the teens returned to the clinic for their scheduled visits. It is suggested that adolescent clinics which combine family planning and STD treatment services maintain high client enrollment and therefore may be ideal locations to initiate new and continuous interventions for condom use especially for high risk teens.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Aluminum effects on operant performance and food motivation of mice.

Previous studies demonstrated better performance of operant tasks in mice fed excess aluminum (Al) in the diet. The current study examined whether (a) Al leads to impairment of spatial alternation after extended practice, (b) Al enhances performance of an operant task that emphasizes motor learning and ability (differential reinforcement of high rates, DRH), and (c) Al enhances food motivation as reflected in progressive ratio (PR) performance. Male Swiss Webster mice were fed purified diets containing 7 (control), 500, or 1000 microg Al/g diet. Subgroups were fed excess Al diets during development (conception to 35 days postnatal) or as adults (35 days postnatal through the end of testing). Operant training and testing were conducted at 50 days postnatal. Data indicated that extended training of developmentally exposed mice did not lead to performance deficits, that DRH performance of both developmentally and adult-exposed mice was enhanced, and that food motivation (PR task) was significantly greater in the adult-exposed group with a similar trend in the developmentally exposed group. Aluminum may bias performance of food-motivated tasks by influencing food motivation.

Aluminum↗
PubMedDate not supplied

HIV treatment adherence in women living with HIV/AIDS: research based on the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model of health behavior.

Close and consistent adherence to anti-HIV medication regimens is necessary to achieve the maximum benefit of these potentially effective treatments. The authors examined cognitive and behavioral factors associated with HIV treatment adherence in a convenience sample of 112 women, 72 of whom were currently taking HIV treatments at the time of the study. Women completed confidential surveys and interviews to assess HIV-related health status, treatment regimens, and cognitive behavioral characteristics derived from the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model of health promotion behaviors. Results showed that women who had missed at least one dose of their HIV medications in the past week reported lower intentions (motivation) to remain adherent and lower adherence self-efficacy (skills). Structural equation modeling showed that motivational and skills-building factors significantly predicted the number of medication doses missed. However, treatment-related information did not predict treatment adherence. In addition, women who had missed a dose of medication in the past week were more likely to have ever used devices and strategies to remind them of doses, but were no more likely to currently use such strategies. Interventions that enhance treatment adherence motivation and build adherence skills may help improve HIV treatment adherence in women receiving anti-HIV therapies.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Differential motivational responses to food and pleasurable cues in anorexia and bulimia nervosa: a startle reflex paradigm.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal perceptions of food and shape underpin the cognitive behavioural model of eating disorders (EDs). The aim of this study was to investigate motivational processing of disorder-specific and standard emotional cues in anorexia (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) using startle eyeblink modulation (SEM). SEM was used because it is sensitive to motivational states of approach (appetitive response) and withdrawal (aversive response), which are independent of conscious intentional control. METHOD: Acoustically elicited SEM and subjective anxiety ratings were measured in 30 female patients with an ED (n=15 AN, n=15 BN) and 30 female control subjects while they viewed ED-relevant stimuli (food, female bodies) and standardized emotional pictures. RESULTS: BN subjects showed an appetitive response (startle inhibition) to food relative to neutral cues that differed significantly from AN subjects. By contrast, self-reports indicated significantly increased anxiety related to food cues across both ED groups. To female body picture (relative to neutral) cues, no significant between-group differences were found for SEM. ED subjects unexpectedly showed an aversive response (startle potentiation) to positive cues, in contrast to controls, who showed the established startle attenuation. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results suggest that BN patients demonstrated an exaggerated appetitive response to food but not to standardized positive cues, whereas SEM in AN patients points to a generalized failure to activate the appetitive motivational system. Differences in motivational salience to food cues are in line with distinctions between AN and BN in eating behaviour and food consumption and support differential treatment requirements.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Andragogy and medical education: are medical students internally motivated to learn?

Andragogy - the study of adult education - has been endorsed by many medical educators throughout North America. There remains, however, considerable controversy as to the validity and utility of adult education principles as espoused by the field's founder, Malcolm Knowles. Whatever the utility of andragogic doctrine in general education settings, there is reason to doubt its wholesale applicability to the training of medical professionals. Malcolm Knowles' last tenet of andragogy holds that adult learners are more motivated by internal than by external factors. The validity of this hypothesis in medical education is examined, and it is demonstrated that medical students' internal and external motivation are context-dependent, not easily distinguishable, and interrelate with one another in complex ways. Furthermore, the psychological motivation for medical student learning is determined by a variety of factors that range from internal to external, unconscious to conscious, and individual to societal. The andragogic hypothesis of increased internal motivation to learn on the part of adults in general, and medical trainees in particular, is rejected as simplistic, misleading, and counterproductive to developing a greater understanding of the forces that drive medical students to learn.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

The effects of motive information and crime unusualness on jurors' judgments in insanity cases.

This study investigated the effects of motive information and crime unusualness on mock jurors' judgments in two homicide cases in which the defendant pleaded insanity. Undergraduates (N = 371) read case information and rendered a verdict, estimated the probability that the defendant was insane, and made additional judgments about the defendant's mental state. The defendant was more likely to be judged insane if the crime was oddly committed rather than committed in a typical manner. Prosecution motive information also affected judgments; the defendant was considered more sane if the prosecution presented evidence of a strong, reasonable motive. Evidence of a "crazy," unreasonable motive, presented by the defense, caused jurors to see the defendant in one of the cases as more insane.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1991

Cognitive motivation and drug use: a 9-year longitudinal study.

The predictive precedence of expectancy constructs, operationally defined as cognitive motivations, and drug use was investigated over a 9-year period from adolescence to adulthood. Alternative predictions from three different classes of theories of expectancy-behavior relations, including expectancy theory, a Skinnerian approach, and a reciprocal determinism perspective, were evaluated. The results are most consistent with the notion based in expectancy theory that cognitive motivations are nonspurious and possibly functionally autonomous influences on the use and abuse of drugs. More limited support is found for the view that drug use leads to cognitive motivations, as postulated in other theoretical perspectives. Other findings reveal the presence of expectancy generalization processes consistent with Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory, as well as the unique status of cognitive motivations for alcohol as an independent predictor of problem drug use.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Assessing the validity of the achievement motive in the presence of random measurement error.

The presence of random measurement error in indicators of theoretical constructs biases observed estimates of relations among those constructs. Correcting for this bias is particularly important when random measurement error is substantial, or is substantially different for indicators of distinct constructs included in a theoretical model. Validity assessment in the case of thematic apperceptive measures of the achievement motive (TAT n Achievement) has been vulnerable to interpretive errors because these indicators of the achievement motive are typically much less reliable than indicators of other constructs to which the motive may be related, and no correction has been made for the bias introduced by such differential measurement error. Here we illustrate a causal modeling approach to validity assessment for TAT n Achievement that incorporates explicit true-score measurement models of theoretical constructs. We confirm the hypothesis that the achievement motive construct is positively related to work satisfaction in a representative sample of adult males in the United States, taken in 1976 (N = 413). Evidence for the discriminant validity of story content versus story length, an issue raised in the literature on the TAT, is also presented in this nomological network.

Achievement↗
PubMed1988

Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men.

Research on convicted rapists has demonstrated the importance of several key motivational factors in male sexual aggression. In particular, anger at women and the need to dominate or control them have been repeatedly implicated. Although anger and power have also been shown to be important in understanding college men who report sexually aggressive behavior, there has been little research on what underlies these motives. This research combined questions assessing these underlying motivational factors, as well as questions dealing with underlying sexual motivation and disinhibition, with a slightly modified version of the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss & Oros, 1982). In Study 1, subjects were 184 male undergraduates. Factor analysis of the questions composing the four scales yielded four slightly modified scales. Scales measuring underlying anger, underlying power, and disinhibition significantly differentiated sexually aggressive from nonaggressive men but did not distinguish between men who were coercive, manipulative, or nonaggressive. In a replication on a smaller sample (n = 70), underlying anger, underlying power, and disinhibition again differentiated sexually aggressive from nonaggressive men.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

The Work Preference Inventory: assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations.

The Work Preference Inventory (WPI) is designed to assess individual differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Both the college student and the working adult versions aim to capture the major elements of intrinsic motivation (self-determination, competence, task involvement, curiosity, enjoyment, and interest) and extrinsic motivation (concerns with competition, evaluation, recognition, money or other tangible incentives, and constraint by others). The instrument is scored on two primary scales, each subdivided into 2 secondary scales. The WPI has meaningful factor structures, adequate internal consistency, good short-term test-retest reliability, and good longer term stability. Moreover, WPI scores are related in meaningful ways to other questionnaire and behavioral measures of motivation, as well as personality characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Sustained helping without obligation: motivation, longevity of service, and perceived attitude change among AIDS volunteers.

A conceptual framework that identifies psychological and behavioral features associated with antecedents, experiences, and consequences of volunteerism is presented, and an inventory that measures 5 specific motivations for AIDS volunteerism is developed and cross-validated. Then a field study of 116 AIDS volunteers is presented in which a helping disposition, volunteer motivations, and social support (as antecedents), and personal satisfaction and organizational integration (as experiences) are used to predict duration of service over 2 1/2 years. Structural equation analyses indicate that dispositional helping influences satisfaction and integration but not duration of service, whereas greater motivation and less social support predict longer active volunteer service. The model is generalized to the prediction of perceived attitude change. Implications for conceptualizations of motivation, theoretical issues in helping, and practical concerns of volunteer organizations are discussed.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗